On This Page:ToggleTechniquesApplicationsHow to Cluster SampleAdvantagesLimitationsExamplesCluster Sampling vs. Stratified On This Page:Toggle On This Page: Cluster random sampling is a probability sampling method where researchers divide a large population into smaller groups known as clusters, and then select randomly among the clusters to form a sample.Cluster sampling is typically used when the population and the desired sample size are particularly large. Cluster random sampling is a probability sampling method where researchers divide a large population into smaller groups known as clusters, and then select randomly among the clusters to form a sample....

On This Page:ToggleTypesAdvantagesLimitationsExamplesFAQs On This Page:Toggle On This Page: A cohort study is a type of longitudinal study where a group of individuals (cohort), often sharing a common characteristic or experience, is followed over an extended period of time to study and track outcomes, typically related to specific exposures or interventions. In cohort studies, the participants must share a common factor or characteristic such as age, demographic, or occupation. A “cohort” is a group of subjects who share a defining characteristic....

On This Page:ToggleIn ResearchControllingExampleFAQs On This Page:Toggle On This Page: Confounding Variables in Research Due to the presence of confounding variables in research, we should never assume that a correlation between two variables implies causation. When an extraneous variable has not been properly controlled and interferes with the dependent variable (i.e., results), it is called a confounding variable. In order to accurately estimate the effect of the IV on the DV, the researcher must reduce the effects of C....

On This Page:ToggleDifferencesControl GroupExperimental GroupFAQs On This Page:Toggle On This Page: In acontrolled experiment, scientists compare a control group, and an experimental group is identical in all respects except for one difference – experimental manipulation.DifferencesUnlike the experimental group, the control group is not exposed to the independent variable under investigation. So, it provides a baseline against which any changes in the experimental group can be compared.Since experimental manipulation is the only difference between the experimental and control groups, we can be sure that any differences between the two are due to experimental manipulation rather than chance....

This is when ahypothesisis scientifically tested. In a controlled experiment, an independent variable (the cause) is systematically manipulated, and the dependent variable (the effect) is measured; any extraneous variables are controlled. The researcher can operationalize (i.e., define) the studied variables so they can be objectively measured. Thequantitative datacan be analyzed to see if there is a difference between the experimental and control groups. What is the control group? In experiments scientists compare acontrol group and an experimental groupthat are identical in all respects, except for one difference – experimental manipulation....

On This Page:ToggleTechniqueWhen To UseHow to UseAdvantagesLimitationsExamplesKey Terms On This Page:Toggle On This Page: Convenience sampling is a non-probabilitysampling methodwhere data is collected from an easily accessible and available group of people. The individuals in the sample are selected not because they are most representative of the entire population, but because they are most easily accessible to the researcher. Non-probability sampling means that researchers choose the sample instead of randomly selecting it, so not all population members have an equal chance of participating in the study....

On This Page:ToggleTypesScatter PlotsUses of CorrelationsCorrelation CoefficientsCorrelation vs. CausationStrengthsLimitations On This Page:Toggle On This Page: Correlation means association – more precisely, it measures the extent to which two variables are related. There are three possible results of a correlational study: a positive correlation, a negative correlation, and no correlation. Types Scatter Plots A scatter plot is a graphical display that shows the relationships or associations between two numerical variables (or co-variables), which are represented as points (or dots) for each pair of scores....

On This Page:TogglePurposeDesignsExamplesAdvantagesLimitationsCross-Sectional vs. Longitudinal On This Page:Toggle On This Page: A cross-sectional study design is a type of observational study, or descriptive research, that involves analyzing information about a population at a specific point in time. This design measures the prevalence of an outcome of interest in a defined population. It provides a snapshot of the characteristics of the population at a single point in time. It can be used to assess the prevalence of outcomes and exposures, determine relationships among variables, and generate hypotheses about causal connections between factors to be explored in experimental designs....

On This Page:ToggleDouble-Blind StudiesDouble-Blinding ProcedureAdvantagesDisadvantages On This Page:Toggle On This Page: What is a Blinded Study? Double-Blind Studies Double-blind studies are those in which neither the participants nor the experimenters know who is receiving a particular treatment. Double blinding prevents bias in research results, specifically due to demand characteristics or the placebo effect. Demand characteristics are subtle cues from researchers that can inform the participants of what the experimenter expects to find or how participants are expected to behave....

On This Page:ToggleTypesSummaryLearning CheckExperiment Terminology On This Page:Toggle On This Page: Experimental design refers to how participants are allocated to different groups in an experiment. Types of design include repeated measures, independent groups, and matched pairs designs. Probably the most common way to design an experiment in psychology is to divide the participants into two groups, the experimental group and the control group, and then introduce a change to the experimental group, not the control group....

On This Page:ToggleOriginCausesSignsConsequencesCan Groupthink Ever be a Good Thing?Real-Life ScenariosOpposition to the TheoryHow to Avoid GroupthinkLearning checkFAQs On This Page:Toggle On This Page: Groupthink refers to the tendency for certain types of groups to reach decisions that are extreme and which tend to be unwise or unrealistic Groupthink occurs when individuals in cohesive groups fail to consider alternative perspectives because they are motivated to reach a consensus which typically results in making less-than-desirable decisions....

On This Page:ToggleHolism in PsychologyStrengthsLimitations On This Page:Toggle On This Page: Holism is often referred to asGestalt psychology. It argues that behavior cannot be understood in terms of the components that make them up. This is commonly described as ‘the whole being greater than the sum of its parts.’ In other words, human behavior has its own properties that are not explicable in terms of the properties of the elements from which it is derived....

An APA abstract is a brief, comprehensive summary of the contents of an article, research paper, dissertation, or report. It is written in accordance with the guidelines of the American Psychological Association (APA), which is a widely used format in social and behavioral sciences. The abstract should stand alone, be “self-contained,” and make sense to the reader in isolation from the main article. The purpose of the abstract is to give the reader a quick overview of the essential information before reading the entire article....

Karl Popper’s theory of falsification contends that scientific inquiry should aim not to verify hypotheses but to rigorously test and identify conditions under which they are false. Unlike verification, falsification focuses on categorically disproving theoretical predictions rather than confirming them. Summary Theory of Falsification Karl Popper is prescriptive and describes what science should do (not how it actually behaves). Popper is a rationalist and contended that the central question in the philosophy of science was distinguishing science from non-science....

On This Page:ToggleExamplesAnalyzing DataCritical EvaluationVarious kinds of rating scales have been developed tomeasure attitudesdirectly (i.e., the person knows their attitude is being studied). The most widely used is the Likert scale (1932).In its final form, the Likert scale is a five (or seven) point scale that is used to allow an individual to express how much they agree or disagree with a particular statement.The Likert scale (typically) provides five possible answers to a statement or question that allows respondents to indicate their positive-to-negative strength of agreement or strength of feeling regarding the question or statement....