ADHD can make it challenging to complete tasks, follow through on responsibilities, and interact with others. It is common for everyone to experience some level of difficulty with attention or controlling impulsive behavior, but for those with ADHD, the problems can be so pervasive and persistent that they can interfere with every aspect of their lives. The first known documentation of ADHD was from 1902, when it was coined for some children....

On This Page:ToggleADHD is seen as a ‘male disorder’Research BiasPresentationSocietal BeliefsMisdiagnosisMaskingConsequences of Late DiagnosisImportance of a Diagnosis On This Page:Toggle On This Page: Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is often overlooked and undiagnosed in girls and women. This article explores some of the key reasons whyfemales with ADHDtend to be underdiagnosed. These include the fact that ADHD is viewed as a “male” condition, differences in how ADHD manifests in girls versus boys, societal expectations of girls’ behavior, tendencies for girls to internalize and mask symptoms, and misdiagnoses of comorbid mood disorders....

On This Page:ToggleDenialRepressionProjectionDisplacementRegressionSublimationRationalizationReaction FormationIntrojectionIdentification with the Aggressor On This Page:Toggle On This Page: Sigmund Freud(1894, 1896) noted a number of ego defenses, which he refers to throughout his written works. His daughterAnna Freud(1936) developed these ideas and elaborated on them, adding ten of her own. Many psychoanalysts have also added further types of ego defenses. Defense mechanisms are psychological strategies that are unconsciously used to protect a person fromanxietyarising from unacceptable thoughts or feelings....

On This Page:ToggleTrust vs. MistrustAutonomy vs. Shame & DoubtInitiative vs. GuiltIndustry vs. InferiorityIdentity vs. Role ConfusionIntimacy vs. IsolationGenerativity vs. StagnationEgo Integrity vs. DespairSupport and Criticism On This Page:Toggle On This Page: Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order through eight stages of psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood. During each stage, the person experiences a psychosocial crisis that could positively or negatively affect personality development. For Erikson (1958, 1963), these crises are psychosocial because they involve the psychological needs of the individual (i....

On This Page:ToggleIdEgoSuperegoExamplesTherapeutic Implications On This Page:Toggle On This Page: Freud’s Iceberg Model of the Mind: The conscious mind with the ego at its helm is the visible tip of the iceberg. Beneath the surface, the larger unconscious realm houses the primal instincts of the id and the moral compass of the superego, steering our actions and reactions in subtle and complex ways. Perhaps Freud’s single most enduring and important idea was the human psyche (personality)....

On This Page:ToggleIceberg TheoryUnconscious MindCritical Evaluation On This Page:Toggle On This Page: Sigmund Freuddidn’t exactly invent the idea of the conscious versus unconscious mind, but he certainly was responsible for making it popular, and this was one of his main contributions to psychology. Freud (1900, 1905) developed a topographical model of the mind, describing the features of the mind’s structure and function. Freud used the analogy of an iceberg to describe the three levels of the mind: conscious, preconscious, and unconscious....

On This Page:ToggleFeaturesThematic Apperception TestDraw a Person TestRorschach Inkblot TestCritical Evaluation On This Page:Toggle On This Page: Projective tests in psychology are assessment tools that present individuals with ambiguous stimuli, prompting them to interpret or create stories about them. Common examples include theRorschach inkblotand Thematic Apperception tests (TAT). The idea behind projective tests is that when individuals are presented with ambiguous stimuli, such as pictures or inkblots, they will project their unconscious feelings, thoughts, and desires onto their interpretations of these stimuli....

On This Page:ToggleBackgroundCase History Little Hans’ PhobiaFreud’s Interpretation of Hans’ PhobiaCritical Evaluation On This Page:Toggle On This Page: Case Study SummaryLittle Hans was a 5-year-old boy with a phobia of horses. Like all clinical case studies, the primary aim was to treat the phobia.However, Freud’s therapeutic input in this case was minimal, and a secondary aim was to explore what factors might have led to the phobia in the first place, and what factors led to its remission....

On This Page:ToggleDeveloping a Theory of Unconscious PhantasyThe Paranoid-Schizoid PositionThe Depressive PositionOedipus ComplexMelanie KleinCritical Evaluation On This Page:Toggle On This Page: Object relations theory in psychoanalysis posits that early childhood relationships with primary caregivers, particularly the mother, profoundly shape an individual’s later interactions and emotional development. It emphasizes internalized mental representations of self and others, which guide interpersonal relations and influence one’s sense of self-worth and attachment styles. Klein’s (1921) theory of the unconscious focused on the relationship between the mother–infant rather than the father–infant one, and inspired the central concepts of the Object Relations School within psychoanalysis....

On This Page:ToggleThe Oedipus ComplexThe Electra ComplexCritical Evaluation On This Page:Toggle On This Page: The Oedipal complex occurs during the Phallic stage of development (ages 3-6) in which the source of libido (life force) is concentrated in the erogenous zones of the child’s body (Freud, 1905). During this stage, children experience an unconscious feeling of desire for their opposite-sex parent and jealousy and envy toward their same-sex parent. The Oedipus complex is successfully resolved when the boy begins to identify with his father as an indirect way to have the mother....

On This Page:ToggleSummary TableTheoretical AssumptionsKey FiguresPsychodynamic vs PsychoanalyticHistorical TimelineIssues and DebatesCritical Evaluation On This Page:Toggle On This Page: The psychodynamic approach in psychology emphasizes unconscious processes and unresolved past conflicts as influences on behavior. Rooted in Freud’s theories, it explores the interplay of drives, desires, and defense mechanisms in shaping personality and behavior. Key Takeaways Sigmund Freud(writing between the 1890s and the 1930s) developed a collection of theories which have formed the basis of the psychodynamic approach to psychology....

On This Page:ToggleTechniquesStagesKey Concepts On This Page:Toggle On This Page: Adlerian therapy focuses on understanding an individual’s lifestyle and social interests, examining past experiences and family dynamics, and encouraging goal-setting and positive behavior changes to overcome perceived barriers and foster a sense of belonging and purpose. Portrait of Alfred Adler in the library with his own books. Hand drawn illustration. Adlerian Therapy Techniques The techniques used in Adlerian therapy aim to provide insight into an individual’s lifestyle, challenge and reorient unhealthy beliefs, and encourage socially beneficial behaviors....

Adverse Childhood Experiences(ACEs) refer to stressful or traumatic events that children face before reaching 18. These include various forms of abuse (physical, emotional, sexual), neglect (emotional, physical), and household challenges such as witnessing domestic violence, living with substance abusers, having an incarcerated relative, or experiencing family separation. Studies have shown that individuals with a high number of ACEs are at an increased risk for negative outcomes in adulthood, including chronic diseases, mental illness, substance misuse, and reduced life potential....

On This Page:ToggleIndividual PsychologyCompensation, Overcompensation, and ComplexesPersonality Typology, or Styles of LifeCritical Evaluation On This Page:Toggle On This Page: Key Takeaways Individual Psychology While Freud focused on only the internal processes —mainly sexual conflicts— that affect a person’s psychology, Adler was adamant that to fully understand a person, a psychologist must also consider other internal and external factors. This is why he named his school of psychology individual; the word is intended to evoke a meaning of indivisibility, derived from the Latin individuum (Mosak et al....

On This Page:ToggleWho Was Anna Freud?Early LifeCareer Timeline of ContributionsCritical EvaluationKey Publications On This Page:Toggle On This Page: Anna Freud, daughter of Sigmund Freud, significantly advanced the field of child psychoanalysis. She emphasized the importance of the ego and its defensive mechanisms, helping to elucidate how children’s emotional conflicts influence their development. Additionally, she founded the Hampstead Child Therapy Course and Clinic in London, contributing to the establishment of psychoanalytic child therapy as a distinct discipline....