Working memory, a keyexecutive function, is often impaired in individuals with ADHD. This cognitive process allows for the temporary storage and manipulation of information necessary for complex tasks.
InADHD, working memory deficits can manifest as difficulties in following multi-step instructions, keeping track of tasks, or maintaining focus during activities.
These impairments are thought to stem from underlying neurobiological differences, particularly in the prefrontal cortex and its connections to other brain regions.
Working memorydeficits can significantly impact daily functioning, contributing to academic struggles, disorganization, and challenges in social interactions for people with ADHD.
Key Points
Rationale
Children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) often experience significant academic difficulties, including both underachievement on standardized tests and underperformance in daily classroom activities (Loe & Feldman, 2007).
Prior research has identified working memory deficits and organizational skills problems as key factors associated with these academic struggles (Kofler et al., 2017; Langberg, Epstein, et al., 2011).
Working memory difficulties have been linked to both organizational skills deficits and academic functioning in ADHD through cross-sectional, longitudinal, and experimental studies (Ahmed et al., 2019; Chan et al., 2023; Singh et al., 2022).
Similarly, organizational skills training interventions have shown promise for improving academic performance in ADHD (Bikic et al., 2017).
However, the extent to which working memory and organizational skills independently versus jointly contribute to academic difficulties in ADHD remains unclear.
No prior study has examined all three constructs – working memory, organizational skills, and academic functioning – together in children with ADHD.
Understanding these relationships can inform more targeted interventions to support academic success for children with ADHD.
Method
Procedure
Sample
The sample comprised 309 children ages 8-13 years (M= 10.34,SD= 1.42; 123 girls) from the southeastern United States.
203 children met criteria for ADHD, while 106 did not. The sample was ethnically diverse: 69.6% White Not Hispanic or Latino, 13.3% Black, 6.8% Hispanic or Latino, 10.0% multiracial, and 0.3% Asian.
Measures
Statistical measures
Latent variable structural equation modeling was used to examine the relationships between ADHD, working memory, organizational skills, and academic functioning.
Bias-corrected bootstrapping with 5,000 resamples was used to test indirect effects.
Results
Insight
This study provides important new insights into the cognitive mechanisms underlying academic difficulties in children with ADHD.
The findings suggest that both working memory deficits and organizational skills problems play significant and largely independent roles in explaining academic underachievement and underperformance in ADHD.
Notably, working memory difficulties appear to have both direct effects on academic functioning and indirect effects via organizational skills problems.
This aligns with theoretical models proposing that working memory deficits may lead to downstream impairments in various functional domains for children with ADHD (Rapport et al., 2001).
An intriguing finding was that after accounting for working memory and organizational skills difficulties, children with ADHD showed potential for slightly higher academic achievement than their peers.
This suggests that children with ADHD may actually be working harder than their peers to overcome their cognitive deficits and achieve similar academic outcomes.
The use of latent variable modeling allowed for a more precise estimation of these relationships while accounting for measurement error.
Future research should examine these relationships longitudinally to clarify the directionality of effects over time.
Additionally, investigating domain-specific academic outcomes (e.g., math vs. reading) could provide more nuanced insights into how working memory and organizational skills impact different areas of academic functioning in ADHD.
Strengths
This study had several methodological strengths, including:
Limitations
This study also had several methodological limitations, including:
Implications
The findings have significant implications for understanding and addressing academic difficulties in children with ADHD:
These implications are particularly relevant for clinical psychologists, educators, and other professionals working with children with ADHD.
By addressing underlying cognitive and behavioral mechanisms, interventions may be more effective in promoting long-term academic success for these children.
References
Primary reference
Cole, A. M., Chan, E. S. M., Gaye, F., Harmon, S. L., & Kofler, M. J. (2024). The role of working memory and organizational skills in academic functioning for children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.Neuropsychology.Advance online publication.https://doi.org/10.1037/neu0000960
Other references
Ahmed, S. F., Tang, S., Waters, N. E., & Davis-Kean, P. (2019). Executive function and academic achievement: Longitudinal relations from early childhood to adolescence.Journal of Educational Psychology,111(3), 446.
Bikic, A., Reichow, B., McCauley, S. A., Ibrahim, K., & Sukhodolsky, D. G. (2017). Meta-analysis of organizational skills interventions for children and adolescents with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder.Clinical psychology review,52, 108-123.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2016.12.004
Chan, E. S., Gaye, F., Cole, A. M., Singh, L. J., & Kofler, M. J. (2023). Central executive training for ADHD: Impact on organizational skills at home and school. A randomized controlled trial.Neuropsychology.https://doi.org/10.1037/neu0000918
Kofler, M. J., Sarver, D. E., Harmon, S. L., Moltisanti, A., Aduen, P. A., Soto, E. F., & Ferretti, N. (2018). Working memory and organizational skills problems in ADHD.Journal of child psychology and psychiatry,59(1), 57-67.https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12773
Langberg, J. M., Epstein, J. N., Girio-Herrera, E., Becker, S. P., Vaughn, A. J., & Altaye, M. (2011). Materials organization, planning, and homework completion in middle-school students with ADHD: Impact on academic performance.School mental health,3, 93-101.https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-011-9052-y
Loe, I. M., & Feldman, H. M. (2007). Academic and educational outcomes of children with ADHD.Journal of pediatric psychology,32(6), 643-654.https://doi.org/10.1093/jpepsy/jsl054
Rapport, M. D., Chung, K. M., Shore, G., & Isaacs, P. (2001). A conceptual model of child psychopathology: Implications for understanding attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and treatment efficacy.Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology,30(1), 48-58.https://doi.org/10.1207/S15374424JCCP3001_6
Singh, L. J., Gaye, F., Cole, A. M., Chan, E. S., & Kofler, M. J. (2022). Central executive training for ADHD: Effects on academic achievement, productivity, and success in the classroom.Neuropsychology,36(4), 330.
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Saul McLeod, PhD
BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester
Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.
Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc
BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education
Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.
