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Parenting styles are constructs used to describe the different strategies parents tend to utilize when raising children. These styles encompass parents' behaviors and attitudes and the emotional environment in which they raise their children.
Developmental psychologists have long been interested in how parents affectchild development. However, finding actual cause-and-effect links between specific actions of parents and the later behavior of children is very difficult.
Some children raised in dramatically different environments can grow up to have remarkably similar personalities. Conversely, children who share a home and are raised in the same environment can grow up to have very different personalities.
Despite these challenges, researchers have posited that there are links between parenting styles and the effects these styles have on children. And some suggest these effects carry over into adult behavior.
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The Four Parenting Styles
In the 1960s, psychologist Diana Baumrind conducted a study on more than 100 preschool-age children. Usingnaturalistic observation, parental interviews, andother research methods, she identified important dimensions of parenting.
Other common characteristics include:
Baumrind says these parents “are obedience- and status-oriented, and expect their orders to be obeyed without explanation.” They are often described as domineering and dictatorial. Their approach is “spare the rod, spoil the child.” They expect children to obey without question.
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Like authoritarian parents, those with anauthoritative parenting styleestablish rules and guidelines that their children are expected to follow. However, this parenting style is much more democratic.
Here are a few common characteristics of the authoritative parenting style:
According to Baumrind, authoritative parents are good at setting standards and monitoring their children’s behavior. Their disciplinary methods are assertive and supportive rather than intrusive, restrictive, or punitive.
For authoritative parents, the goal is to raise children who are socially responsible, cooperative, and self-regulated. The combination of expectation and support helps children of authoritative parents develop skills such as independence, self-control, and self-regulation.
Permissive Parenting
Permissive parents, sometimes referred to as indulgent parents, make very few demands of their children. These parents rarely discipline their children because they have relatively low expectations of maturity and self-control.
Other common characteristics of permissive parenting are:
According to Baumrind, permissive parents are responsive to their children but not demanding. Because they do not expect mature behavior from their children, kids may struggle to set limits for themselves.
Permissive parents are generally nurturing and communicative with their children, often taking on the status of a friend more than a parent. On the positive side, this can help kids become more self-sufficient and independent. On the downside, it can contribute topoor self-regulation.
Effects of Permissive ParentingPermissive parenting often results in children who rank low in happiness and self-regulation. These children are more likely toengage in high-risk behaviorsand tend to perform poorly in school.
Effects of Permissive Parenting
Permissive parenting often results in children who rank low in happiness and self-regulation. These children are more likely toengage in high-risk behaviorsand tend to perform poorly in school.
Uninvolved Parenting
Other characteristics of the uninvolved parenting style include:
Effects of Uninvolved ParentingUninvolved parenting styles rank lowest across all life domains. These children tend tolack self-control, have higher rates of delinquency, and poorer self-reliance.
Effects of Uninvolved Parenting
Uninvolved parenting styles rank lowest across all life domains. These children tend tolack self-control, have higher rates of delinquency, and poorer self-reliance.
What’s Your Parenting Style?
This fast and freeparenting style quizcan help you analyze the methods you’re using to parent your kids and whether or not it may be a good idea to learn some new parenting behaviors:
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The Impact of Parenting Styles
Research suggests that parenting styles can have a range of effects on children. Some areas of a child’s life that may be affected, whether in the present or the future, include:
Mixing Parenting StylesThe parenting styles of individual parents also combine to create a unique blend in each family.For example, the mother may display an authoritative style, while the father favors a more permissive approach. This can sometimes lead to mixed signals.To create a cohesive approach to parenting, parents must learn to cooperate and combine their unique parenting styles.
Mixing Parenting Styles
The parenting styles of individual parents also combine to create a unique blend in each family.For example, the mother may display an authoritative style, while the father favors a more permissive approach. This can sometimes lead to mixed signals.To create a cohesive approach to parenting, parents must learn to cooperate and combine their unique parenting styles.
The parenting styles of individual parents also combine to create a unique blend in each family.For example, the mother may display an authoritative style, while the father favors a more permissive approach. This can sometimes lead to mixed signals.
To create a cohesive approach to parenting, parents must learn to cooperate and combine their unique parenting styles.
Because authoritative parents are more likely to be viewed as reasonable, fair, and just, their children are more likely to comply with their parents' requests. Also, because these parents provide rules as well as explanations for these rules, children are much more likely to internalize these lessons.
Rather than simply following the rules because theyfear punishment(as they might with authoritarian parents), the children of authoritative parents are able to see why the rules exist, understand that they are fair and acceptable, and strive to follow these rules to meet their own internalized sense of what is right and wrong.
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Can You Change Your Parenting Style?
If you notice that you tend to be more authoritarian, permissive, or uninvolved, there are steps you can take to adopt a more authoritative parenting style.Strategies that may help include:
Developing a more authoritative parenting style takes time. With practice and consistent effort, however, you will find that your approach to parenting gradually shifts to a more supportive, involved approach that can lead to better developmental outcomes.
Parenting Style Quiz: What’s Your Parenting Style?
Limitations of Parenting Style Research
Links between parenting styles and behavior are based oncorrelational research, which is helpful for findingrelationships between variables. However, such research cannot establish definitive cause-and-effect relationships.
While there is evidence that a particular parenting style is linked to a specific pattern of behavior, other variables, such as a child’s temperament, can also play a significant role.
Children May Affect Their Parents' Styles
There is also evidence thata child’s behaviorcan impact parenting styles. One study found that when a child misbehaves, a parent’s response tends to be more variable.An interpretation of this result is that kids might misbehave not because their parents were too permissive but because parents of difficult oraggressive childrengave up on trying to control their kids.
Outcomes Vary
The correlations between parenting styles and behaviors are sometimes weak, so the expected child outcomes do not materialize. For example, parents with authoritative styles may have children who are defiant or engage in delinquent behavior. Parents with permissive styles may also ave self-confident and academically successful children.
Cultural Factors Play a Role
Cultural factors also play a significant role in parenting styles and child outcomes. There isn’t a universal style of parenting that is always best. For example, while authoritarian parenting is associated with poorer academic achievement, this effect is less pronounced in Hispanic families.
Final Thoughts
Parenting styles are associated with different child outcomes, and the authoritative style is generally linked to positive behaviors such as strong self-esteem and self-competence. However, other important factors—including culture,children’s temperament, children’s perceptions of parental treatment, and social influences—also play an important role in children’s behavior.
Understanding more about your parenting style can help you explore different approaches to parenting your children. If you notice that you tend to have a more strict, indulgent, or dismissive approach, there are steps that you can take to become more involved and authoritative in how you relate to your children.
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13 Sources
Verywell Mind uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.
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