What to Know About Music Therapy

Table of ContentsView AllTable of ContentsTypesTechniquesUsesBenefitsEffectivenessThings to ConsiderHow to Get Started

Table of ContentsView All

View All

Table of Contents

Types

Techniques

Uses

Benefits

Effectiveness

Things to Consider

How to Get Started

Close

Music therapy is a therapeutic approach that uses thenaturally mood-lifting properties of musicto help people improve their mental health and overall well-being.It’s a goal-oriented intervention that may involve:

This form of treatment may be helpful for people with depression and anxiety, and it may help improve the quality of life for people with physical health problems.Anyone can engage in music therapy; you don’t need a background in music to experience its beneficial effects.

How Music Can Be Therapeutic

Types of Music Therapy

Music therapy can be an active process, where clients play a role in creating music, or a passive one that involves listening or responding to music. Some therapists may use a combined approach that involves both active and passive interactions with music.

There are a variety of approaches established in music therapy, including:

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Music Therapy vs. Sound Therapy

Music therapy and sound therapy (orsound healing) are distinctive, and each approach has its own goals, protocols, tools, and settings:

During a music therapy session, you may listen to differentgenres of music, play a musical instrument, or even compose your own songs. You may be asked to sing or dance. Your therapist may encourage you to improvise, or they may have a set structure for you to follow.

You may be asked to tune in to your emotions as you perform these tasks or to allow your feelings to direct your actions. For example, if you are angry, you might play or sing loud, fast, and dissonant chords.

Music therapy is often one-on-one, but you may also choose to participate ingroup sessionsif they are available. Sessions with a music therapist take place wherever they practice, which might be a:

Wherever it happens to be, the room you work in together will be a calm environment with no outside distractions.

What Music Therapy Can Help With

Music therapy may be helpful for people experiencing:

Research also suggests that it can be helpful for people with:

Music therapy is also often used to help children and adolescents:

Online Therapy Services for Kids and Families, Tried and Tested

Benefits of Using Music as Therapy

Music therapy can be highly personalized, making it suitable for people of any age—even very young children can benefit. It’s also versatile and offers benefits for people with a variety of musical experience levels and with different mental or physical health challenges.

Engaging with music can:

Research has also shown that music can have a powerful effect on people with dementia and other memory-related disorders.

Overall, music therapy can increase positive feelings, like:

The uses and benefits of music therapy have been researched for decades. Key findings from clinical studies have shown that music therapy may be helpful for people with depression and anxiety, sleep disorders, and even cancer.

Depression

Studies have shown that music therapy can be an effective component of depression treatment.According to the research cited, the use of music therapy was most beneficial to people with depression when it was combined with the usualtreatments(such as antidepressants and psychotherapy).

When used in combination with other forms of treatment, music therapy may also helpreduce obsessive thoughts, depression, and anxiety in people with OCD.

In 2016, researchers conducted a feasibility study that explored how music therapy could be combined withCBT to treat depression.While additional research is needed, the initial results were promising.

The Best Online Therapy Services for Depression We Tried and Tested

Insomnia

Many people find that music, or even white noise, helps them fall asleep.Research has shown that music therapy may be helpful for people with sleep disorders or insomnia as a symptom of depression.

Compared to pharmaceuticals and other commonly prescribed treatments for sleep disorders, music is less invasive, more affordable, and something a person can do on their own to self-manage their condition.

Pain Management

Music has been explored as a potential strategy for acute and chronic pain management in all age groups. Research has shown that listening to music when healing from surgery or an injury, for example, may help both kids and adults cope with physical pain.

Music therapy may help reduce pain associated with:

Cancer

Coping with a cancer diagnosis and going through cancer treatment is as much an emotional experience as a physical one. People with cancer often need different sources of support to take care of their emotional and spiritual well-being.

Music therapy has been shown to help reduce anxiety in people with cancer who are starting radiation treatments. It may also help them cope with the side effects of chemotherapy, such as nausea.

Music therapy may also offer emotional benefits for people experiencing depression after receiving their cancer diagnosis, while they’re undergoing treatment, or even after remission.

On its own, music therapy may not constitute adequate treatment for medical conditions, includingmental health disorders. However, when combined with medication,psychotherapy, and other interventions, it can be a valuable component of a treatment plan.

If you have difficulty hearing, wear a hearing aid, or have a hearing implant, you should talk with your audiologist before undergoing music therapy to ensure that it’s safe for you.

Similarly, music therapy that incorporates movement or dancing may not be a good fit if you’re experiencing pain, illness, injury, or a physical condition that makes it difficult to exercise.

You’ll also want to check your health insurance benefits prior to starting music therapy. Your sessions may be covered or reimbursable under your plan, but you may need a referral from your doctor.

If you’d like to explore music therapy, talk to your doctor or therapist. They can connect you with practitioners in your community. TheAmerican Music Therapy Association (AMTA)also maintains a database of board-certified, credentialed professionals that you can use to find a practicing music therapist in your area.

Depending on your goals, a typical music therapy session lasts between 30 and 50 minutes.Much like you would plan sessions with a psychotherapist, you may choose to have a set schedule for music therapy—say, once a week—or you may choose to work with a music therapist on a more casual “as-needed” basis.

Before your first session, you may want to talk things over with your music therapist so you know what to expect and can check in with your primary care physician if needed.

Therapy

24 SourcesVerywell Mind uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Aigen KS.The Study of Music Therapy: Current Issues and Concepts. Routledge & CRC Press. New York; 2013. doi:10.4324/9781315882703Jasemi M, Aazami S, Zabihi RE.The effects of music therapy on anxiety and depression of cancer patients.Indian J Palliat Care. 2016;22(4):455-458. doi:10.4103/0973-1075.191823Chung J, Woods-Giscombe C.Influence of dosage and type of music therapy in symptom management and rehabilitation for individuals with schizophrenia.Issues Ment Health Nurs. 2016;37(9):631-641. doi:10.1080/01612840.2016.1181125MacDonald R, Kreutz G, Mitchell L.Music, Health, and Wellbeing. Oxford; 2012. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199586974.001.0001Monti E, Austin D.The dialogical self in vocal psychotherapy.Nord J Music Ther. 2018;27(2):158-169. doi:10.1080/08098131.2017.1329227American Music Therapy Association (AMTA).Music therapy with specific populations: Fact sheets, resources & bibliographies.Wang CF, Sun YL, Zang HX.Music therapy improves sleep quality in acute and chronic sleep disorders: A meta-analysis of 10 randomized studies.Int J Nurs Stud. 2014;51(1):51-62. doi:10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2013.03.008Bidabadi SS, Mehryar A.Music therapy as an adjunct to standard treatment for obsessive compulsive disorder and co-morbid anxiety and depression: A randomized clinical trial.J Affect Disord. 2015;184:13-7. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2015.04.011Kamioka H, Tsutani K, Yamada M, et al.Effectiveness of music therapy: A summary of systematic reviews based on randomized controlled trials of music interventions.Patient Prefer Adherence. 2014;8:727-754. doi:10.2147/PPA.S61340Raglio A, Attardo L, Gontero G, Rollino S, Groppo E, Granieri E.Effects of music and music therapy on mood in neurological patients.World J Psychiatry. 2015;5(1):68-78. doi:10.5498/wjp.v5.i1.68Altenmüller E, Schlaug G.Apollo’s gift: New aspects of neurologic music therapy.Prog Brain Res. 2015;217:237-252. doi:10.1016/bs.pbr.2014.11.029Werner J, Wosch T, Gold C.Effectiveness of group music therapy versus recreational group singing for depressive symptoms of elderly nursing home residents: Pragmatic trial.Aging Ment Health. 2017;21(2):147-155. doi:10.1080/13607863.2015.1093599Dunbar RIM, Kaskatis K, MacDonald I, Barra V.Performance of music elevates pain threshold and positive affect: Implications for the evolutionary function of music.Evol Psychol. 2012;10(4):147470491201000420. doi:10.1177/147470491201000403Pavlicevic M, O’neil N, Powell H, Jones O, Sampathianaki E.Making music, making friends: Long-term music therapy with young adults with severe learning disabilities.J Intellect Disabil. 2014;18(1):5-19. doi:10.1177/1744629513511354Chang YS, Chu H, Yang CY, et al.The efficacy of music therapy for people with dementia: A meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials.J Clin Nurs. 2015;24(23-24):3425-40. doi:10.1111/jocn.12976Aalbers S, Fusar-Poli L, Freeman RE, et al.Music therapy for depression.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017;11:CD004517. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004517.pub3Trimmer C, Tyo R, Naeem F.Cognitive behavioural therapy-based music (CBT-music) group for symptoms of anxiety and depression.Can J Commun Ment Health. 2016;35(2):83-87. doi:10.7870/cjcmh-2016-029Jespersen KV, Koenig J, Jennum P, Vuust P.Music for insomnia in adults.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;(8):CD010459. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD010459.pub2Redding J, Plaugher S, Cole J, et al.“Where’s the Music?” Using music therapy for pain management.Fed Pract. 2016;33(12):46-49.Novotney A.Music as medicine.Monitor on Psychology. 2013;44(10):46.McCaffrey T, Cheung PS, Barry M, Punch P, Dore L.The role and outcomes of music listening for women in childbirth: An integrative review.Midwifery. 2020;83:102627. doi:10.1016/j.midw.2020.102627Liu Y, Petrini MA.Effects of music therapy on pain, anxiety, and vital signs in patients after thoracic surgery.Complement Ther Med. 2015;23(5):714-8.doi:10.1016/j.ctim.2015.08.002Rossetti A, Chadha M, Torres BN, et al.The impact of music therapy on anxiety in cancer patients undergoing simulation for radiation therapy.Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2017;99(1):103-110. doi:10.1016/j.ijrobp.2017.05.003American Music Therapy Association (AMTA).Guidance for music listening programs.

24 Sources

Verywell Mind uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Aigen KS.The Study of Music Therapy: Current Issues and Concepts. Routledge & CRC Press. New York; 2013. doi:10.4324/9781315882703Jasemi M, Aazami S, Zabihi RE.The effects of music therapy on anxiety and depression of cancer patients.Indian J Palliat Care. 2016;22(4):455-458. doi:10.4103/0973-1075.191823Chung J, Woods-Giscombe C.Influence of dosage and type of music therapy in symptom management and rehabilitation for individuals with schizophrenia.Issues Ment Health Nurs. 2016;37(9):631-641. doi:10.1080/01612840.2016.1181125MacDonald R, Kreutz G, Mitchell L.Music, Health, and Wellbeing. Oxford; 2012. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199586974.001.0001Monti E, Austin D.The dialogical self in vocal psychotherapy.Nord J Music Ther. 2018;27(2):158-169. doi:10.1080/08098131.2017.1329227American Music Therapy Association (AMTA).Music therapy with specific populations: Fact sheets, resources & bibliographies.Wang CF, Sun YL, Zang HX.Music therapy improves sleep quality in acute and chronic sleep disorders: A meta-analysis of 10 randomized studies.Int J Nurs Stud. 2014;51(1):51-62. doi:10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2013.03.008Bidabadi SS, Mehryar A.Music therapy as an adjunct to standard treatment for obsessive compulsive disorder and co-morbid anxiety and depression: A randomized clinical trial.J Affect Disord. 2015;184:13-7. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2015.04.011Kamioka H, Tsutani K, Yamada M, et al.Effectiveness of music therapy: A summary of systematic reviews based on randomized controlled trials of music interventions.Patient Prefer Adherence. 2014;8:727-754. doi:10.2147/PPA.S61340Raglio A, Attardo L, Gontero G, Rollino S, Groppo E, Granieri E.Effects of music and music therapy on mood in neurological patients.World J Psychiatry. 2015;5(1):68-78. doi:10.5498/wjp.v5.i1.68Altenmüller E, Schlaug G.Apollo’s gift: New aspects of neurologic music therapy.Prog Brain Res. 2015;217:237-252. doi:10.1016/bs.pbr.2014.11.029Werner J, Wosch T, Gold C.Effectiveness of group music therapy versus recreational group singing for depressive symptoms of elderly nursing home residents: Pragmatic trial.Aging Ment Health. 2017;21(2):147-155. doi:10.1080/13607863.2015.1093599Dunbar RIM, Kaskatis K, MacDonald I, Barra V.Performance of music elevates pain threshold and positive affect: Implications for the evolutionary function of music.Evol Psychol. 2012;10(4):147470491201000420. doi:10.1177/147470491201000403Pavlicevic M, O’neil N, Powell H, Jones O, Sampathianaki E.Making music, making friends: Long-term music therapy with young adults with severe learning disabilities.J Intellect Disabil. 2014;18(1):5-19. doi:10.1177/1744629513511354Chang YS, Chu H, Yang CY, et al.The efficacy of music therapy for people with dementia: A meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials.J Clin Nurs. 2015;24(23-24):3425-40. doi:10.1111/jocn.12976Aalbers S, Fusar-Poli L, Freeman RE, et al.Music therapy for depression.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017;11:CD004517. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004517.pub3Trimmer C, Tyo R, Naeem F.Cognitive behavioural therapy-based music (CBT-music) group for symptoms of anxiety and depression.Can J Commun Ment Health. 2016;35(2):83-87. doi:10.7870/cjcmh-2016-029Jespersen KV, Koenig J, Jennum P, Vuust P.Music for insomnia in adults.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;(8):CD010459. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD010459.pub2Redding J, Plaugher S, Cole J, et al.“Where’s the Music?” Using music therapy for pain management.Fed Pract. 2016;33(12):46-49.Novotney A.Music as medicine.Monitor on Psychology. 2013;44(10):46.McCaffrey T, Cheung PS, Barry M, Punch P, Dore L.The role and outcomes of music listening for women in childbirth: An integrative review.Midwifery. 2020;83:102627. doi:10.1016/j.midw.2020.102627Liu Y, Petrini MA.Effects of music therapy on pain, anxiety, and vital signs in patients after thoracic surgery.Complement Ther Med. 2015;23(5):714-8.doi:10.1016/j.ctim.2015.08.002Rossetti A, Chadha M, Torres BN, et al.The impact of music therapy on anxiety in cancer patients undergoing simulation for radiation therapy.Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2017;99(1):103-110. doi:10.1016/j.ijrobp.2017.05.003American Music Therapy Association (AMTA).Guidance for music listening programs.

Verywell Mind uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.

Aigen KS.The Study of Music Therapy: Current Issues and Concepts. Routledge & CRC Press. New York; 2013. doi:10.4324/9781315882703Jasemi M, Aazami S, Zabihi RE.The effects of music therapy on anxiety and depression of cancer patients.Indian J Palliat Care. 2016;22(4):455-458. doi:10.4103/0973-1075.191823Chung J, Woods-Giscombe C.Influence of dosage and type of music therapy in symptom management and rehabilitation for individuals with schizophrenia.Issues Ment Health Nurs. 2016;37(9):631-641. doi:10.1080/01612840.2016.1181125MacDonald R, Kreutz G, Mitchell L.Music, Health, and Wellbeing. Oxford; 2012. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199586974.001.0001Monti E, Austin D.The dialogical self in vocal psychotherapy.Nord J Music Ther. 2018;27(2):158-169. doi:10.1080/08098131.2017.1329227American Music Therapy Association (AMTA).Music therapy with specific populations: Fact sheets, resources & bibliographies.Wang CF, Sun YL, Zang HX.Music therapy improves sleep quality in acute and chronic sleep disorders: A meta-analysis of 10 randomized studies.Int J Nurs Stud. 2014;51(1):51-62. doi:10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2013.03.008Bidabadi SS, Mehryar A.Music therapy as an adjunct to standard treatment for obsessive compulsive disorder and co-morbid anxiety and depression: A randomized clinical trial.J Affect Disord. 2015;184:13-7. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2015.04.011Kamioka H, Tsutani K, Yamada M, et al.Effectiveness of music therapy: A summary of systematic reviews based on randomized controlled trials of music interventions.Patient Prefer Adherence. 2014;8:727-754. doi:10.2147/PPA.S61340Raglio A, Attardo L, Gontero G, Rollino S, Groppo E, Granieri E.Effects of music and music therapy on mood in neurological patients.World J Psychiatry. 2015;5(1):68-78. doi:10.5498/wjp.v5.i1.68Altenmüller E, Schlaug G.Apollo’s gift: New aspects of neurologic music therapy.Prog Brain Res. 2015;217:237-252. doi:10.1016/bs.pbr.2014.11.029Werner J, Wosch T, Gold C.Effectiveness of group music therapy versus recreational group singing for depressive symptoms of elderly nursing home residents: Pragmatic trial.Aging Ment Health. 2017;21(2):147-155. doi:10.1080/13607863.2015.1093599Dunbar RIM, Kaskatis K, MacDonald I, Barra V.Performance of music elevates pain threshold and positive affect: Implications for the evolutionary function of music.Evol Psychol. 2012;10(4):147470491201000420. doi:10.1177/147470491201000403Pavlicevic M, O’neil N, Powell H, Jones O, Sampathianaki E.Making music, making friends: Long-term music therapy with young adults with severe learning disabilities.J Intellect Disabil. 2014;18(1):5-19. doi:10.1177/1744629513511354Chang YS, Chu H, Yang CY, et al.The efficacy of music therapy for people with dementia: A meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials.J Clin Nurs. 2015;24(23-24):3425-40. doi:10.1111/jocn.12976Aalbers S, Fusar-Poli L, Freeman RE, et al.Music therapy for depression.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017;11:CD004517. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004517.pub3Trimmer C, Tyo R, Naeem F.Cognitive behavioural therapy-based music (CBT-music) group for symptoms of anxiety and depression.Can J Commun Ment Health. 2016;35(2):83-87. doi:10.7870/cjcmh-2016-029Jespersen KV, Koenig J, Jennum P, Vuust P.Music for insomnia in adults.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;(8):CD010459. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD010459.pub2Redding J, Plaugher S, Cole J, et al.“Where’s the Music?” Using music therapy for pain management.Fed Pract. 2016;33(12):46-49.Novotney A.Music as medicine.Monitor on Psychology. 2013;44(10):46.McCaffrey T, Cheung PS, Barry M, Punch P, Dore L.The role and outcomes of music listening for women in childbirth: An integrative review.Midwifery. 2020;83:102627. doi:10.1016/j.midw.2020.102627Liu Y, Petrini MA.Effects of music therapy on pain, anxiety, and vital signs in patients after thoracic surgery.Complement Ther Med. 2015;23(5):714-8.doi:10.1016/j.ctim.2015.08.002Rossetti A, Chadha M, Torres BN, et al.The impact of music therapy on anxiety in cancer patients undergoing simulation for radiation therapy.Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2017;99(1):103-110. doi:10.1016/j.ijrobp.2017.05.003American Music Therapy Association (AMTA).Guidance for music listening programs.

Aigen KS.The Study of Music Therapy: Current Issues and Concepts. Routledge & CRC Press. New York; 2013. doi:10.4324/9781315882703

Jasemi M, Aazami S, Zabihi RE.The effects of music therapy on anxiety and depression of cancer patients.Indian J Palliat Care. 2016;22(4):455-458. doi:10.4103/0973-1075.191823

Chung J, Woods-Giscombe C.Influence of dosage and type of music therapy in symptom management and rehabilitation for individuals with schizophrenia.Issues Ment Health Nurs. 2016;37(9):631-641. doi:10.1080/01612840.2016.1181125

MacDonald R, Kreutz G, Mitchell L.Music, Health, and Wellbeing. Oxford; 2012. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199586974.001.0001

Monti E, Austin D.The dialogical self in vocal psychotherapy.Nord J Music Ther. 2018;27(2):158-169. doi:10.1080/08098131.2017.1329227

American Music Therapy Association (AMTA).Music therapy with specific populations: Fact sheets, resources & bibliographies.

Wang CF, Sun YL, Zang HX.Music therapy improves sleep quality in acute and chronic sleep disorders: A meta-analysis of 10 randomized studies.Int J Nurs Stud. 2014;51(1):51-62. doi:10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2013.03.008

Bidabadi SS, Mehryar A.Music therapy as an adjunct to standard treatment for obsessive compulsive disorder and co-morbid anxiety and depression: A randomized clinical trial.J Affect Disord. 2015;184:13-7. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2015.04.011

Kamioka H, Tsutani K, Yamada M, et al.Effectiveness of music therapy: A summary of systematic reviews based on randomized controlled trials of music interventions.Patient Prefer Adherence. 2014;8:727-754. doi:10.2147/PPA.S61340

Raglio A, Attardo L, Gontero G, Rollino S, Groppo E, Granieri E.Effects of music and music therapy on mood in neurological patients.World J Psychiatry. 2015;5(1):68-78. doi:10.5498/wjp.v5.i1.68

Altenmüller E, Schlaug G.Apollo’s gift: New aspects of neurologic music therapy.Prog Brain Res. 2015;217:237-252. doi:10.1016/bs.pbr.2014.11.029

Werner J, Wosch T, Gold C.Effectiveness of group music therapy versus recreational group singing for depressive symptoms of elderly nursing home residents: Pragmatic trial.Aging Ment Health. 2017;21(2):147-155. doi:10.1080/13607863.2015.1093599

Dunbar RIM, Kaskatis K, MacDonald I, Barra V.Performance of music elevates pain threshold and positive affect: Implications for the evolutionary function of music.Evol Psychol. 2012;10(4):147470491201000420. doi:10.1177/147470491201000403

Pavlicevic M, O’neil N, Powell H, Jones O, Sampathianaki E.Making music, making friends: Long-term music therapy with young adults with severe learning disabilities.J Intellect Disabil. 2014;18(1):5-19. doi:10.1177/1744629513511354

Chang YS, Chu H, Yang CY, et al.The efficacy of music therapy for people with dementia: A meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials.J Clin Nurs. 2015;24(23-24):3425-40. doi:10.1111/jocn.12976

Aalbers S, Fusar-Poli L, Freeman RE, et al.Music therapy for depression.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017;11:CD004517. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004517.pub3

Trimmer C, Tyo R, Naeem F.Cognitive behavioural therapy-based music (CBT-music) group for symptoms of anxiety and depression.Can J Commun Ment Health. 2016;35(2):83-87. doi:10.7870/cjcmh-2016-029

Jespersen KV, Koenig J, Jennum P, Vuust P.Music for insomnia in adults.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;(8):CD010459. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD010459.pub2

Redding J, Plaugher S, Cole J, et al.“Where’s the Music?” Using music therapy for pain management.Fed Pract. 2016;33(12):46-49.

Novotney A.Music as medicine.Monitor on Psychology. 2013;44(10):46.

McCaffrey T, Cheung PS, Barry M, Punch P, Dore L.The role and outcomes of music listening for women in childbirth: An integrative review.Midwifery. 2020;83:102627. doi:10.1016/j.midw.2020.102627

Liu Y, Petrini MA.Effects of music therapy on pain, anxiety, and vital signs in patients after thoracic surgery.Complement Ther Med. 2015;23(5):714-8.doi:10.1016/j.ctim.2015.08.002

Rossetti A, Chadha M, Torres BN, et al.The impact of music therapy on anxiety in cancer patients undergoing simulation for radiation therapy.Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2017;99(1):103-110. doi:10.1016/j.ijrobp.2017.05.003

American Music Therapy Association (AMTA).Guidance for music listening programs.

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