Table of ContentsView AllTable of ContentsWhat Are Anabolic Steroids?Mental Health EffectsAddictionHistoryHow Steroids Are UsedRisksTreatmentPrevention

Table of ContentsView All

View All

Table of Contents

What Are Anabolic Steroids?

Mental Health Effects

Addiction

History

How Steroids Are Used

Risks

Treatment

Prevention

What is the most important information I should know about anabolic steroids?

While anabolic steroids have legitimate medical uses, they are frequently misused due to their muscle-building and performance-enhancing effects.  This misuse can significantly affect physical health, but steroid use can also affect the brain, behavior, and mental health. Steroid dependence and withdrawal can also occur.

Approximately three to four million people between the ages of 13 and 50 are believed to have used anabolic steroids. Of these individuals, an estimated one million have experienced steroiddependence.

Learn more about how anabolic steroids are used, their psychological effects, and treatments that can help.

The term “anabolic steroids” is used to refer to a group of synthetic substances that mimic the effects of male sex hormones such as testosterone. The drugs promote in both males and females the growth of skeletal muscle (anabolic effects) and the development of male sexual characteristics (androgenic effects).

Therefore, the proper term for these substances should be “anabolic-androgenic steroids,” throughout this site, they are referred to as the more commonly used term “anabolic steroids.”

Mental Health Effects of Steroid Use

While steroids are generally used for their performance-enhancing and physical effects, it is important to note that they may also have mental health and psychological effects as well.

Some psychological effects of steroid use that have been reported include:

There have been reports of people who misuse steroids experiencing psychotic and manic reactions. However, these have been rare occurrences and researchers believe they have most likely occurred in people with a history of prior mental illness.

A 2021 study noted that high-dose use of anabolic steroids is linked to brain and cognitive abnormalities and that long-term high-dose use can negatively affect brain aging.

Anabolic Steroids and Aggression

While steroid use is often linked to increased aggression, a phenomenon sometimes known as “roid rage,” its exact impact on violence and behavioral disorders is not fully known. The prevalence of extreme cases of violence among those who use steroids appears to be low, but as with the health effects, extreme violence could be underreported or underrecognized.

Anger, Hostility, Aggression or Violent BehaviorAnger, irritability, hostility, aggression, and/or violent behavior:Becomes more likely at higher dosesMinor provocations evoke exaggerated responsesOccurs in some but not all people who use anabolic steroidPresents danger to law enforcementPresents danger to spouse, family, and friendsUnpredictable who will respond

Anger, Hostility, Aggression or Violent Behavior

Anger, irritability, hostility, aggression, and/or violent behavior:Becomes more likely at higher dosesMinor provocations evoke exaggerated responsesOccurs in some but not all people who use anabolic steroidPresents danger to law enforcementPresents danger to spouse, family, and friendsUnpredictable who will respond

Anger, irritability, hostility, aggression, and/or violent behavior:

Some people who misuse anabolic steroid report that when they are taking steroids, they are more likely to engage in aggressive behavior such as fighting, armed robbery, burglary, theft, and vandalism than they are when they are drug-free.

The NIDA reports four studies in which volunteers were given high dosages of anabolic steroids.In three of the studies, the volunteers reported greater feelings of aggression and irritability, although the effects varied widely between individuals.

One study found that anabolic steroid use was associated with changes in inhibitory control and impulsivity, which may be more significant in those who began using steroids as teens.

Anabolic Steroids and Addiction

Some research has found that the use of anabolic steroids may cause people to turn to other drugs to alleviate negative short-term side effects. One study found that 9.3% of men who were being treated for heroin or other opioids use had misused steroids before doing any other drugs.

Are Anabolic Steroids Addictive?

Some individuals who misuse anabolic steroids can develop patterns of behavior that are typicalsymptoms of addiction. Those behaviors include:

RecapSome people who use anabolic steroids continue taking the drugs despite experiencing physical problems and problems in their social relationships. The percentage of those who continue to use in spite of negative consequences is not known.

Recap

Some people who use anabolic steroids continue taking the drugs despite experiencing physical problems and problems in their social relationships. The percentage of those who continue to use in spite of negative consequences is not known.

Steroid Addiction Symptoms

Many people who misuse steroids spend large amounts of time and money to obtain the drugs they use. When they stop taking steroids, people can experiencewithdrawal symptomsthat can include mood swings, restlessness, loss of appetite, and craving for steroids.

Other withdrawal symptoms reported in case studies of people coming off anabolic steroids use include:

One of the most serious withdrawal symptoms associated with stopping steroid use isdepressionbecause it can sometimes lead to a suicide attempt.Research reveals that if untreated,depressionassociated with anabolic steroid withdrawal can persist for a year or longer after the use of the drug stops.

If you are having suicidal thoughts, contact theNational Suicide Prevention Lifelineat988for support and assistance from a trained counselor. If you or a loved one are in immediate danger, call 911.

History of Anabolic Steroids

Anabolic steroids were originally developed in the 1930s to treat hypogonadism, a medical condition in which the testes do not produce enough testosterone. Currently, they are prescribed to treat steroid hormone deficiency, such as delayed puberty and some types of impotence

Sometimes, steroids are prescribed to counteract the wasting away of the body’s muscle mass due to diseases like some cancers and HIV infection.

Commonly Misused SteroidsAccording to the National Institute on Drug Abuse, these are some commonly misused steroids:Oral SteroidsAnadrol (oxymetholone)Dianabol (methandrostenolone)Oxandrin (oxandrolone)Winstrol (stanozolol)Injectable SteroidsDeca-Durabolin (nandrolone decanoate)Depo-Testosterone (testosterone cypionate)Durabolin (nandrolone phenpropionate)Equipoise (boldenone undecylenate)Tetrahydrogestrinone (THG)

Commonly Misused Steroids

According to the National Institute on Drug Abuse, these are some commonly misused steroids:Oral SteroidsAnadrol (oxymetholone)Dianabol (methandrostenolone)Oxandrin (oxandrolone)Winstrol (stanozolol)Injectable SteroidsDeca-Durabolin (nandrolone decanoate)Depo-Testosterone (testosterone cypionate)Durabolin (nandrolone phenpropionate)Equipoise (boldenone undecylenate)Tetrahydrogestrinone (THG)

According to the National Institute on Drug Abuse, these are some commonly misused steroids:

Oral Steroids

Injectable Steroids

Steroidal Supplements

Steroidal supplements, promoted as hormone products or alternatives to anabolic steroids, are substances that claim to be converted into testosterone or similar compounds in the body. Many of these products are marketed and labeled as dietary supplements that can purportedly increase muscle mass and strength.

Up until 2004, substances called steroid supplements could be purchased legally at health food stores and other commercial outlets. But, in 2004, Congress passed amendments to the Controlled Substance Act making the sale of supplements like tetrahydrogestrinone (THG) and androstenedione (street name Andro) illegal.The exception to the new laws was dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA).

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regularly issues public health advisory warnings about bodybuilding products that are represented to contain steroids or steroid-like substances.The warnings state: “These products are marketed as dietary supplements, they are NOT dietary supplements, but instead are unapproved and misbranded drugs.”

Because these steroid supplement products could increase testosterone levels in the body like anabolic steroids themselves, it is believed that their side effects could also be the same. Little research has been done on the side effects of these supplements, but the FDA warns they can be harmful.

How Anabolic Steroids Are Used

Steroids may be prescribed to treat certain medical conditions including:

Risks Anabolic Steroids

According to the latest research available regarding anabolic steroids, there are several physical effects of steroid misuse.

Short-term adverse effects may include:

Long-Term Risks

There is a limited amount of scientific research about the long-term risks of anabolic steroid misuse. The “possible” long-term effects come primarily from case studies and may include:

The negative effects linked to anabolic steroid misuse can range from those that are mildly annoying to those that can be life-threatening. People who misuse steroids report experiencing health effects that range from developing acne problems to having heart attacks and liver cancer.

Most of the effects of using anabolic steroids are reversible when the person stops using the drugs, but some can be permanent.

According to the National Institute on Drug Abuse, most of the information the agency has gathered about the long-term effects of anabolic steroids has been obtained from case reports and not from formal epidemiological studies.Most of the research conducted on long-term steroid effects thus far has been done with animal studies.

Some Effects Show Up Years LaterThe prevalence of life-threatening effects of steroid misuse seems to be very low from case studies, but serious adverse effects may be underreported and underrecognized because they sometimes do not appear until years later.

Some Effects Show Up Years Later

The prevalence of life-threatening effects of steroid misuse seems to be very low from case studies, but serious adverse effects may be underreported and underrecognized because they sometimes do not appear until years later.

An Overview of Substance Use

Treatment for Anabolic Steroid Misuse

Treatment for anabolic steroid withdrawal often involves:

If withdrawal symptoms become severe or prolonged, people are given medications to treat the specific withdrawal symptoms. For example,antidepressantsfor depression or analgesics for headaches and pain.

Some people experiencing steroid withdrawal receive medication to help restore their hormonal systems. Others are treated withbehavioral therapiesfor withdrawal symptoms that go beyond pharmacological treatment.

If you or a loved one are struggling with substance use or addiction, contact theSubstance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) National Helplineat1-800-662-4357for information on support and treatment facilities in your area.For more mental health resources, see ourNational Helpline Database.

If you or a loved one are struggling with substance use or addiction, contact theSubstance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) National Helplineat1-800-662-4357for information on support and treatment facilities in your area.

For more mental health resources, see ourNational Helpline Database.

Preventing Anabolic Steroid Misuse

Because the dangers of anabolic steroid misuse are so great and because there does exist a potential for some people to develop addictive-like behavior related to steroid use, efforts should be concentrated on preventing the use in the first place, especially among young student-athletes.

By far the most prevalent anabolic steroid prevention programs in the U.S. are those aimed at professional, Olympic, and college athletes. Very few local school districts have established steroid prevention programs.

According to NIDA, an estimated 9% of secondary schools have drug testing programs for illicit drugs and less than 4% of high schools in the United States test their athletes for anabolic steroids.Even if such testing was more widespread, research has yet to clearly determineif drug testing is effectivein reducing drug use.

Although most secondary schools do not have official anabolic steroids prevention programs in place, programs are available that effectively reduce steroid misuse, other substance use, and other risky behaviors. Some of these programs include:

ATLAS-trained athletes had less interest in trying steroids, less desire to misuse them, better knowledge of alternatives to steroid use, improved body image, and increased knowledge of diet supplements.

What Is Addiction?

15 SourcesVerywell Mind uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Pope HG Jr, Kanayama G, Athey A, Ryan E, Hudson JI, Baggish A.The lifetime prevalence of anabolic-androgenic steroid use and dependence in Americans: Current best estimates.Am J Addict. 2014;23(4):371-377. doi:10.1111/j.1521-0391.2013.12118.xAlbano GD, Amico F, Cocimano G, et al.Adverse effects of anabolic-androgenic steroids: A literature review.Healthcare (Basel). 2021;9(1):97. doi:10.3390/healthcare9010097Pope HG Jr, Kouri EM, Hudson JI.Effects of supraphysiologic doses of testosterone on mood and aggression in normal men: a randomized controlled trial.Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2000;57(2):133-156. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.57.2.133Bjørnebekk A, Kaufmann T, Hauger LE, Klonteig S, Hullstein IR, Westlye LT.Long-term anabolic–androgenic steroid use is associated with deviant brain aging.Biological Psychiatry: Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging. 2021;6(5):579-589. doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2021.01.001National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA).Steroids and Other Appearance and Performance Enhancing Drugs (APEDs).Hildebrandt T, Langenbucher JW, Flores A, Harty S, Berlin HA.The influence of age of onset and acute anabolic steroid exposure on cognitive performance, impulsivity, and aggression in men[published correction appears inPsychol Addict Behav. 2014 Dec;28(4):1104. Berlin, Heather [corrected to Berlin, Heather A]].Psychol Addict Behav. 2014;28(4):1096-1104. doi:10.1037/a0036482Sharma A, Grant B, Islam H, Kapoor A, Pradeep A, Jayasena CN.Common symptoms associated with usage and cessation of anabolic androgenic steroids in men.Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2022;36(5):101691. doi:10.1016/j.beem.2022.101691Watanabe H, Oshima T.The latest treatments for cancer cachexia: an overview.Anticancer Res. 2023;43(2):511-521. doi:10.21873/anticanres.16188Drug Enforcement Administration, Diversion Control Division.Rules 2005: Implementation of the Anabolic Steroid Control Act of 2004. FR Doc 05-23907, December 16, 2005. 70(241)74653-74658. From the Federal Register Online. DOCID:fr16de05-7Food and Drug Administration (FDA).FDA issues warning about body-building products labeled to contain steroid and steroid-like substances.Department of Justice, Drug Enforcement Administration.Steroids. Drug Fact Sheet.Christou MA, Christou PA, Markozannes G, Tsatsoulis A, Mastorakos G, Tigas S.Effects of Anabolic Androgenic Steroids on the Reproductive System of Athletes and Recreational Users: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Sports Med. 2017;47(9):1869-1883. doi:10.1007/s40279-017-0709-zBasaria S, Wahlstrom JT, Dobs AS.Clinical review 138: Anabolic-androgenic steroid therapy in the treatment of chronic diseases.J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001;86(11):5108-17. doi:10.1210/jcem.86.11.7983Goldberg L, Elliot D, Clarke GN, MacKinnon DP, Moe E, Zoref L, Green C, Wolf SL, Greffrath E, Miller DJ, Lapin A.Effects of a multidimensional anabolic steroid prevention intervention: The Adolescents Training and Learning to Avoid Steroids (ATLAS) Program. JAMA. 1996 Nov 20;276(19):1555-62.Elliot DL, Goldberg L.Athletes targeting healthy exercise and nutrition alternatives. Handbook of prevention and intervention programs for adolescent girls. 2008:206.Additional ReadingU.S. National Library of Medicine. MedlinePlus.Anabolic steroids.UK National Health Service.Anabolic steroid misuse.

15 Sources

Verywell Mind uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Pope HG Jr, Kanayama G, Athey A, Ryan E, Hudson JI, Baggish A.The lifetime prevalence of anabolic-androgenic steroid use and dependence in Americans: Current best estimates.Am J Addict. 2014;23(4):371-377. doi:10.1111/j.1521-0391.2013.12118.xAlbano GD, Amico F, Cocimano G, et al.Adverse effects of anabolic-androgenic steroids: A literature review.Healthcare (Basel). 2021;9(1):97. doi:10.3390/healthcare9010097Pope HG Jr, Kouri EM, Hudson JI.Effects of supraphysiologic doses of testosterone on mood and aggression in normal men: a randomized controlled trial.Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2000;57(2):133-156. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.57.2.133Bjørnebekk A, Kaufmann T, Hauger LE, Klonteig S, Hullstein IR, Westlye LT.Long-term anabolic–androgenic steroid use is associated with deviant brain aging.Biological Psychiatry: Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging. 2021;6(5):579-589. doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2021.01.001National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA).Steroids and Other Appearance and Performance Enhancing Drugs (APEDs).Hildebrandt T, Langenbucher JW, Flores A, Harty S, Berlin HA.The influence of age of onset and acute anabolic steroid exposure on cognitive performance, impulsivity, and aggression in men[published correction appears inPsychol Addict Behav. 2014 Dec;28(4):1104. Berlin, Heather [corrected to Berlin, Heather A]].Psychol Addict Behav. 2014;28(4):1096-1104. doi:10.1037/a0036482Sharma A, Grant B, Islam H, Kapoor A, Pradeep A, Jayasena CN.Common symptoms associated with usage and cessation of anabolic androgenic steroids in men.Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2022;36(5):101691. doi:10.1016/j.beem.2022.101691Watanabe H, Oshima T.The latest treatments for cancer cachexia: an overview.Anticancer Res. 2023;43(2):511-521. doi:10.21873/anticanres.16188Drug Enforcement Administration, Diversion Control Division.Rules 2005: Implementation of the Anabolic Steroid Control Act of 2004. FR Doc 05-23907, December 16, 2005. 70(241)74653-74658. From the Federal Register Online. DOCID:fr16de05-7Food and Drug Administration (FDA).FDA issues warning about body-building products labeled to contain steroid and steroid-like substances.Department of Justice, Drug Enforcement Administration.Steroids. Drug Fact Sheet.Christou MA, Christou PA, Markozannes G, Tsatsoulis A, Mastorakos G, Tigas S.Effects of Anabolic Androgenic Steroids on the Reproductive System of Athletes and Recreational Users: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Sports Med. 2017;47(9):1869-1883. doi:10.1007/s40279-017-0709-zBasaria S, Wahlstrom JT, Dobs AS.Clinical review 138: Anabolic-androgenic steroid therapy in the treatment of chronic diseases.J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001;86(11):5108-17. doi:10.1210/jcem.86.11.7983Goldberg L, Elliot D, Clarke GN, MacKinnon DP, Moe E, Zoref L, Green C, Wolf SL, Greffrath E, Miller DJ, Lapin A.Effects of a multidimensional anabolic steroid prevention intervention: The Adolescents Training and Learning to Avoid Steroids (ATLAS) Program. JAMA. 1996 Nov 20;276(19):1555-62.Elliot DL, Goldberg L.Athletes targeting healthy exercise and nutrition alternatives. Handbook of prevention and intervention programs for adolescent girls. 2008:206.Additional ReadingU.S. National Library of Medicine. MedlinePlus.Anabolic steroids.UK National Health Service.Anabolic steroid misuse.

Verywell Mind uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.

Pope HG Jr, Kanayama G, Athey A, Ryan E, Hudson JI, Baggish A.The lifetime prevalence of anabolic-androgenic steroid use and dependence in Americans: Current best estimates.Am J Addict. 2014;23(4):371-377. doi:10.1111/j.1521-0391.2013.12118.xAlbano GD, Amico F, Cocimano G, et al.Adverse effects of anabolic-androgenic steroids: A literature review.Healthcare (Basel). 2021;9(1):97. doi:10.3390/healthcare9010097Pope HG Jr, Kouri EM, Hudson JI.Effects of supraphysiologic doses of testosterone on mood and aggression in normal men: a randomized controlled trial.Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2000;57(2):133-156. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.57.2.133Bjørnebekk A, Kaufmann T, Hauger LE, Klonteig S, Hullstein IR, Westlye LT.Long-term anabolic–androgenic steroid use is associated with deviant brain aging.Biological Psychiatry: Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging. 2021;6(5):579-589. doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2021.01.001National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA).Steroids and Other Appearance and Performance Enhancing Drugs (APEDs).Hildebrandt T, Langenbucher JW, Flores A, Harty S, Berlin HA.The influence of age of onset and acute anabolic steroid exposure on cognitive performance, impulsivity, and aggression in men[published correction appears inPsychol Addict Behav. 2014 Dec;28(4):1104. Berlin, Heather [corrected to Berlin, Heather A]].Psychol Addict Behav. 2014;28(4):1096-1104. doi:10.1037/a0036482Sharma A, Grant B, Islam H, Kapoor A, Pradeep A, Jayasena CN.Common symptoms associated with usage and cessation of anabolic androgenic steroids in men.Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2022;36(5):101691. doi:10.1016/j.beem.2022.101691Watanabe H, Oshima T.The latest treatments for cancer cachexia: an overview.Anticancer Res. 2023;43(2):511-521. doi:10.21873/anticanres.16188Drug Enforcement Administration, Diversion Control Division.Rules 2005: Implementation of the Anabolic Steroid Control Act of 2004. FR Doc 05-23907, December 16, 2005. 70(241)74653-74658. From the Federal Register Online. DOCID:fr16de05-7Food and Drug Administration (FDA).FDA issues warning about body-building products labeled to contain steroid and steroid-like substances.Department of Justice, Drug Enforcement Administration.Steroids. Drug Fact Sheet.Christou MA, Christou PA, Markozannes G, Tsatsoulis A, Mastorakos G, Tigas S.Effects of Anabolic Androgenic Steroids on the Reproductive System of Athletes and Recreational Users: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Sports Med. 2017;47(9):1869-1883. doi:10.1007/s40279-017-0709-zBasaria S, Wahlstrom JT, Dobs AS.Clinical review 138: Anabolic-androgenic steroid therapy in the treatment of chronic diseases.J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001;86(11):5108-17. doi:10.1210/jcem.86.11.7983Goldberg L, Elliot D, Clarke GN, MacKinnon DP, Moe E, Zoref L, Green C, Wolf SL, Greffrath E, Miller DJ, Lapin A.Effects of a multidimensional anabolic steroid prevention intervention: The Adolescents Training and Learning to Avoid Steroids (ATLAS) Program. JAMA. 1996 Nov 20;276(19):1555-62.Elliot DL, Goldberg L.Athletes targeting healthy exercise and nutrition alternatives. Handbook of prevention and intervention programs for adolescent girls. 2008:206.

Pope HG Jr, Kanayama G, Athey A, Ryan E, Hudson JI, Baggish A.The lifetime prevalence of anabolic-androgenic steroid use and dependence in Americans: Current best estimates.Am J Addict. 2014;23(4):371-377. doi:10.1111/j.1521-0391.2013.12118.x

Albano GD, Amico F, Cocimano G, et al.Adverse effects of anabolic-androgenic steroids: A literature review.Healthcare (Basel). 2021;9(1):97. doi:10.3390/healthcare9010097

Pope HG Jr, Kouri EM, Hudson JI.Effects of supraphysiologic doses of testosterone on mood and aggression in normal men: a randomized controlled trial.Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2000;57(2):133-156. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.57.2.133

Bjørnebekk A, Kaufmann T, Hauger LE, Klonteig S, Hullstein IR, Westlye LT.Long-term anabolic–androgenic steroid use is associated with deviant brain aging.Biological Psychiatry: Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging. 2021;6(5):579-589. doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2021.01.001

National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA).Steroids and Other Appearance and Performance Enhancing Drugs (APEDs).

Hildebrandt T, Langenbucher JW, Flores A, Harty S, Berlin HA.The influence of age of onset and acute anabolic steroid exposure on cognitive performance, impulsivity, and aggression in men[published correction appears inPsychol Addict Behav. 2014 Dec;28(4):1104. Berlin, Heather [corrected to Berlin, Heather A]].Psychol Addict Behav. 2014;28(4):1096-1104. doi:10.1037/a0036482

Sharma A, Grant B, Islam H, Kapoor A, Pradeep A, Jayasena CN.Common symptoms associated with usage and cessation of anabolic androgenic steroids in men.Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2022;36(5):101691. doi:10.1016/j.beem.2022.101691

Watanabe H, Oshima T.The latest treatments for cancer cachexia: an overview.Anticancer Res. 2023;43(2):511-521. doi:10.21873/anticanres.16188

Drug Enforcement Administration, Diversion Control Division.Rules 2005: Implementation of the Anabolic Steroid Control Act of 2004. FR Doc 05-23907, December 16, 2005. 70(241)74653-74658. From the Federal Register Online. DOCID:fr16de05-7

Food and Drug Administration (FDA).FDA issues warning about body-building products labeled to contain steroid and steroid-like substances.

Department of Justice, Drug Enforcement Administration.Steroids. Drug Fact Sheet.

Christou MA, Christou PA, Markozannes G, Tsatsoulis A, Mastorakos G, Tigas S.Effects of Anabolic Androgenic Steroids on the Reproductive System of Athletes and Recreational Users: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Sports Med. 2017;47(9):1869-1883. doi:10.1007/s40279-017-0709-z

Basaria S, Wahlstrom JT, Dobs AS.Clinical review 138: Anabolic-androgenic steroid therapy in the treatment of chronic diseases.J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001;86(11):5108-17. doi:10.1210/jcem.86.11.7983

Goldberg L, Elliot D, Clarke GN, MacKinnon DP, Moe E, Zoref L, Green C, Wolf SL, Greffrath E, Miller DJ, Lapin A.Effects of a multidimensional anabolic steroid prevention intervention: The Adolescents Training and Learning to Avoid Steroids (ATLAS) Program. JAMA. 1996 Nov 20;276(19):1555-62.

Elliot DL, Goldberg L.Athletes targeting healthy exercise and nutrition alternatives. Handbook of prevention and intervention programs for adolescent girls. 2008:206.

U.S. National Library of Medicine. MedlinePlus.Anabolic steroids.UK National Health Service.Anabolic steroid misuse.

U.S. National Library of Medicine. MedlinePlus.Anabolic steroids.

UK National Health Service.Anabolic steroid misuse.

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