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Motivation is an important force for initiating and maintaining goal-oriented behaviors. When we are motivated, it feels easier to take steps toward what it is we want. Motivation also helps us continue to take action even when things get tough or we feel like giving up. But where does this force come from? That’s where motivation theory comes into play.Researchers have developed a variety of different explanations forhow we become motivated. Here we share a few of the most well-known motivation theories and the ideas behind them, as well as some of their potential limitations.At a GlanceMotivation theory seeks to explain what compels us to take certain actions. While some theories credit our instincts, drive, or arousal levels for helping us get and stay motivated, others suggest that motivation is derived from certain human needs, our expectations, or a desire for external rewards.
Motivation is an important force for initiating and maintaining goal-oriented behaviors. When we are motivated, it feels easier to take steps toward what it is we want. Motivation also helps us continue to take action even when things get tough or we feel like giving up. But where does this force come from? That’s where motivation theory comes into play.
Researchers have developed a variety of different explanations forhow we become motivated. Here we share a few of the most well-known motivation theories and the ideas behind them, as well as some of their potential limitations.
At a GlanceMotivation theory seeks to explain what compels us to take certain actions. While some theories credit our instincts, drive, or arousal levels for helping us get and stay motivated, others suggest that motivation is derived from certain human needs, our expectations, or a desire for external rewards.
At a Glance
Motivation theory seeks to explain what compels us to take certain actions. While some theories credit our instincts, drive, or arousal levels for helping us get and stay motivated, others suggest that motivation is derived from certain human needs, our expectations, or a desire for external rewards.
Instinct Motivation TheoryNicholas Veasey / Getty ImagesAccording toinstinct theory, motivation is developed through evolutionary programming. It’s similar to how animals know to migrate. They don’t learn how to do this; instead, it’s an inborn or instinctual behavior.In the late 1800s,William James, the father of American psychology, identified a list of survival instincts. Among them were fear, anger, love, shame, and modesty.The main problem with the instinct motivation theory is that it doesn’t explain all human behavior. James presumed that we act on impulse or instinct, but this ideology leaves outbehaviors that are learned or conditioned.By the 1920s, instinct theories were pushed aside in favor of other motivation theories.That said, contemporary evolutionary psychologists still study the influence of genetics and heredity on human behavior.How Evolutionary Psychology Explains Human Behavior
Instinct Motivation Theory
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According toinstinct theory, motivation is developed through evolutionary programming. It’s similar to how animals know to migrate. They don’t learn how to do this; instead, it’s an inborn or instinctual behavior.
In the late 1800s,William James, the father of American psychology, identified a list of survival instincts. Among them were fear, anger, love, shame, and modesty.
The main problem with the instinct motivation theory is that it doesn’t explain all human behavior. James presumed that we act on impulse or instinct, but this ideology leaves outbehaviors that are learned or conditioned.
By the 1920s, instinct theories were pushed aside in favor of other motivation theories.That said, contemporary evolutionary psychologists still study the influence of genetics and heredity on human behavior.
How Evolutionary Psychology Explains Human Behavior
Drive Motivation Theory
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Drive theoryproposes that motivation is derived from a person’s desire to reduce the internal tension that occurs when certain needs go unmet. It’s based on theconcept of homeostasisor the idea that the body actively works to maintain a certain state of balance or equilibrium.
As an example, you may find yourself eating a meal or snack when you aren’t physically hungry. This theory doesn’t explain these types of actions.
Arousal Motivation TheoryPhotographee.eu / ShutterstockThearousal theory of motivationsuggests that people take certain actions to maintain an optimal level of physiological arousal or alertness. Additionally, optimal arousal levels can vary from one person to another, also changing depending on the situation.Based on this theory, if our arousal level gets too low, we are motivated to engage in activities that make us feel more energized, like exercising or going to a nightclub or sporting event. Conversely, if our physiological arousal is too high, we are motivated to pursueactivities that relax the body and mind, such as meditation or taking a nap.One weakness of arousal theory is that it doesn’t explain why we engage in behaviors for reasons outside of physiological alertness—such as deciding to read when you aren’t overly aroused. It also doesn’t account for the role that emotions can play in motivating us to do certain things.
Arousal Motivation Theory
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Thearousal theory of motivationsuggests that people take certain actions to maintain an optimal level of physiological arousal or alertness. Additionally, optimal arousal levels can vary from one person to another, also changing depending on the situation.
Based on this theory, if our arousal level gets too low, we are motivated to engage in activities that make us feel more energized, like exercising or going to a nightclub or sporting event. Conversely, if our physiological arousal is too high, we are motivated to pursueactivities that relax the body and mind, such as meditation or taking a nap.
One weakness of arousal theory is that it doesn’t explain why we engage in behaviors for reasons outside of physiological alertness—such as deciding to read when you aren’t overly aroused. It also doesn’t account for the role that emotions can play in motivating us to do certain things.
Humanistic Motivation Theory
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Maslow’s hierarchy suggests that people are first motivated to fulfill basic physiological needs, such as air, water, and food. Once those needs are satisfied, they are motivated to meet safety, love, and esteem needs before moving on to the need for self-actualization.
Humanistic psychologyis interested in learning about what makes people happy and the things that they do to achieve that aim rather than focusing on problematic behaviors. It is often criticized as being “unscientific and naively overoptimistic.”
Incentive Motivation Theory
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Incentives can arise from outside (extrinsic) or inside (intrinsic) an individual. Intrinsic motivation is when you engage in a behavior because you find it rewarding for your own sake, rather than from the desire for an external reward.
Extrinsic MotivationGoing to work to get paidStudying to get a good gradeWorking hard to get a raise or recognition from your bossTidying your house to avoid feeling embarrassed when company comes overIntrinsic MotivationWorking because you enjoy the jobStudying because you find the subject interestingTackling a new project because you love a challengeTidying your house because a clean home keeps you calm
Extrinsic MotivationGoing to work to get paidStudying to get a good gradeWorking hard to get a raise or recognition from your bossTidying your house to avoid feeling embarrassed when company comes over
Going to work to get paid
Studying to get a good grade
Working hard to get a raise or recognition from your boss
Tidying your house to avoid feeling embarrassed when company comes over
Intrinsic MotivationWorking because you enjoy the jobStudying because you find the subject interestingTackling a new project because you love a challengeTidying your house because a clean home keeps you calm
Working because you enjoy the job
Studying because you find the subject interesting
Tackling a new project because you love a challenge
Tidying your house because a clean home keeps you calm
Intrinsic Motivation vs. Extrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?
Expectancy Motivation TheoryThomas Barwick / Getty ImagesThe expectancy theory of motivation suggests that when we think about the future, we formulate expectations about what we think will happen. When a positive outcome is predicted, we believe that we can make that possible future a reality. This leads us to feel more motivated to pursue those likely outcomes.This theory is sometimes referred to as the valence-instrumentality-expectancy model of motivation as it proposes that motivation consists of these three key elements:Valence: the value people place on the potential outcomeInstrumentality: whether people believe they have a role to play in the predicted outcomeExpectancy: the belief that one has the capabilities to produce the outcomeA weakness of expectancy theory is that it doesn’t account for the impact of one’s social environment. For example, research has found that, in the workplace, groups of individuals can influence the motivation level of a single worker.
Expectancy Motivation Theory
Thomas Barwick / Getty Images
The expectancy theory of motivation suggests that when we think about the future, we formulate expectations about what we think will happen. When a positive outcome is predicted, we believe that we can make that possible future a reality. This leads us to feel more motivated to pursue those likely outcomes.
This theory is sometimes referred to as the valence-instrumentality-expectancy model of motivation as it proposes that motivation consists of these three key elements:
A weakness of expectancy theory is that it doesn’t account for the impact of one’s social environment. For example, research has found that, in the workplace, groups of individuals can influence the motivation level of a single worker.
Putting It All TogetherIn reality, there are likely many different forces that interact to motivate behavior. While no single theory can adequately explain all human motivation, looking at the individual theories can offer a greater understanding of the forces that cause us to take action.Psychological Techniques to Increase Motivation
Putting It All Together
In reality, there are likely many different forces that interact to motivate behavior. While no single theory can adequately explain all human motivation, looking at the individual theories can offer a greater understanding of the forces that cause us to take action.
Psychological Techniques to Increase Motivation
7 SourcesVerywell Mind uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.James W.The Principles of Psychology: Vol II.Britannica.Behaviourism.Güzel O, Sahin I, Ryan C.Push-motivation-based emotional arousal: A research study in a coastal destination.J Destination Market Manage. 2020;16:100428. doi:10.1016/j.jdmm.2020.100428Henry CD.Humanistic psychology and introductory textbooks: A 21st-century reassessment.Humanistic Psycholog. 2017;45(3):281-294. doi:10.1037/hum0000056Silverman K, Jarvis BP, Jessel J, Lopez AA.Incentives and motivation.Transl Issues Psychol Sci. 2016;2(2):97-100. doi:10.1037/tps0000073Osafo E, Paros A, Yawson RM.Valence-instrumentality-expectancy model of motivation as an alternative model of examining ethical leadership behaviors.SAGE Open. 2021;11(2). doi:10.1177/21582440211021896Lloyd R, Mertens D.Expecting more out of expectancy theory: History urges inclusion of social context.Int Manage Rev. 2018;14(1):28-43.Additional ReadingOndabu IT.A theory of human motivation: The Tirimba grouping theory of motivation.SOP Transact Econom Res. 2014;1(1). doi:10.15764/ER.2014.01003
7 Sources
Verywell Mind uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.James W.The Principles of Psychology: Vol II.Britannica.Behaviourism.Güzel O, Sahin I, Ryan C.Push-motivation-based emotional arousal: A research study in a coastal destination.J Destination Market Manage. 2020;16:100428. doi:10.1016/j.jdmm.2020.100428Henry CD.Humanistic psychology and introductory textbooks: A 21st-century reassessment.Humanistic Psycholog. 2017;45(3):281-294. doi:10.1037/hum0000056Silverman K, Jarvis BP, Jessel J, Lopez AA.Incentives and motivation.Transl Issues Psychol Sci. 2016;2(2):97-100. doi:10.1037/tps0000073Osafo E, Paros A, Yawson RM.Valence-instrumentality-expectancy model of motivation as an alternative model of examining ethical leadership behaviors.SAGE Open. 2021;11(2). doi:10.1177/21582440211021896Lloyd R, Mertens D.Expecting more out of expectancy theory: History urges inclusion of social context.Int Manage Rev. 2018;14(1):28-43.Additional ReadingOndabu IT.A theory of human motivation: The Tirimba grouping theory of motivation.SOP Transact Econom Res. 2014;1(1). doi:10.15764/ER.2014.01003
Verywell Mind uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.
James W.The Principles of Psychology: Vol II.Britannica.Behaviourism.Güzel O, Sahin I, Ryan C.Push-motivation-based emotional arousal: A research study in a coastal destination.J Destination Market Manage. 2020;16:100428. doi:10.1016/j.jdmm.2020.100428Henry CD.Humanistic psychology and introductory textbooks: A 21st-century reassessment.Humanistic Psycholog. 2017;45(3):281-294. doi:10.1037/hum0000056Silverman K, Jarvis BP, Jessel J, Lopez AA.Incentives and motivation.Transl Issues Psychol Sci. 2016;2(2):97-100. doi:10.1037/tps0000073Osafo E, Paros A, Yawson RM.Valence-instrumentality-expectancy model of motivation as an alternative model of examining ethical leadership behaviors.SAGE Open. 2021;11(2). doi:10.1177/21582440211021896Lloyd R, Mertens D.Expecting more out of expectancy theory: History urges inclusion of social context.Int Manage Rev. 2018;14(1):28-43.
James W.The Principles of Psychology: Vol II.
Britannica.Behaviourism.
Güzel O, Sahin I, Ryan C.Push-motivation-based emotional arousal: A research study in a coastal destination.J Destination Market Manage. 2020;16:100428. doi:10.1016/j.jdmm.2020.100428
Henry CD.Humanistic psychology and introductory textbooks: A 21st-century reassessment.Humanistic Psycholog. 2017;45(3):281-294. doi:10.1037/hum0000056
Silverman K, Jarvis BP, Jessel J, Lopez AA.Incentives and motivation.Transl Issues Psychol Sci. 2016;2(2):97-100. doi:10.1037/tps0000073
Osafo E, Paros A, Yawson RM.Valence-instrumentality-expectancy model of motivation as an alternative model of examining ethical leadership behaviors.SAGE Open. 2021;11(2). doi:10.1177/21582440211021896
Lloyd R, Mertens D.Expecting more out of expectancy theory: History urges inclusion of social context.Int Manage Rev. 2018;14(1):28-43.
Ondabu IT.A theory of human motivation: The Tirimba grouping theory of motivation.SOP Transact Econom Res. 2014;1(1). doi:10.15764/ER.2014.01003
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