Table of ContentsView AllTable of ContentsDefinitionWhat Neurotherapy Can Help WithNeurofeedbackNeurostimulationBenefitsIs Neurotherapy An Evidence-Based Treatment?Things to ConsiderHow to Get Started
Table of ContentsView All
View All
Table of Contents
Definition
What Neurotherapy Can Help With
Neurofeedback
Neurostimulation
Benefits
Is Neurotherapy An Evidence-Based Treatment?
Things to Consider
How to Get Started
What Is Neurotherapy?
Neurotherapy is a drug-free treatment that helps people improve their brain function through technology.Neuro- refers to neurons, the nerve cells of the brain and the nervous system. Neurotherapy uses the premise ofbrain plasticity, meaning neurons can create new connections and reorganize neural pathways to improve brain functioning. This is fundamental in the treatment of a variety of psychological and neurological conditions.
There are two distinct types of neurotherapy. The first, usingneurofeedback, suggests people can learn to control their own brain functioning through the use of real-time displays of brain activity. This is often referred to as “brain training.”
The second type is known asneurostimulation, where a person’s neural activity can be modified through electrical currents or electromagnetic pulses. This is typically non-invasive and through the scalp; however, some treatments require a surgical procedure to insert electrodes into the brain.
Neurotherapy has become a popular treatment alternative for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and it is becoming more widespread as a treatment for a variety of psychiatric and neurological disorders including depression, anxiety, obsessive-compulsive disorder, migraines, and brain injury. This article will explain the different types of neurotherapy currently available, which technology works best for specific disorders, and what a treatment session looks like.
The brain is complex, and each system requires a delicate balance of electrical and chemical activity at the neural level to maintain stability. A variety of psychiatric and neurological symptoms are related to irregular neural activity, giving rise to many potential applications of neurotherapy.
Attention dysregulation:having trouble with attention and concentration, as well as periods ofhyperfocus.
Behavior dysregulation:difficulty controllingactivitylevels,impulses, andcompulsions.
Emotional dysregulation:difficulty controlling emotional responses in a healthy way. Instead, theyexperience intense emotions, often with outbursts, and have difficulty returning to a normal state once they are triggered. A low response is also possible as in the case of anhedonia as a symptom of depression.
Motor system dysregulation:difficulty controlling motor movements, exhibiting symptoms like tremors,tics, and Parkinsonism.
Some of the common conditions treated with neurotherapy include:
The feedback is usually displayed on a screen in the form of an interactive graphic, video game, movie, or music. Advances in technology in recent years are making this treatment more individualized, and even portable.
What Our Brain Waves Reveal
The brain exhibits different wave patterns for each state of arousal. As we fall into deeper stages of sleep, the frequency of our brain waves slows down while amplitude increases. Someone who is learning something new or extremely focused will show gamma waves, which have a higher frequency than you see in normal awake activities.
Brain Wave Patterns:Learning, extreme focus, REM sleep (gamma; 30-100 Hz)Awake and attentive (beta; 13-30 Hz)Relaxed (alpha; 8-13 Hz)Light sleep, meditation (theta; 4-8 Hz)Deep sleep (delta; < 4 Hz)
Brain Wave Patterns:
Learning, extreme focus, REM sleep (gamma; 30-100 Hz)Awake and attentive (beta; 13-30 Hz)Relaxed (alpha; 8-13 Hz)Light sleep, meditation (theta; 4-8 Hz)Deep sleep (delta; < 4 Hz)
When the brain is dysregulated, irregular brain wave patterns show up. These irregularities have been understood for a long time in conditions such as epilepsy, sleep disorders, brain injury, and Parkinson’s. In more recent decades, neuroscientists have been studying brain wave patterns of people with a variety of neurological and psychological conditions, and have coined the maladaptive patterns as the “electrical fingerprint.”
In 2014, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the use of the EEG as a diagnostic tool in addition to the traditional clinical interview. This means brainwaves have become accepted as a biomarker of clinical conditions beyond epilepsy and sleep disorders and EEGs can be ordered to assist with diagnoses and guide treatment.
Once the pattern is confirmed, treatment can be designed to target the specific electrical fingerprint that shows up on the EEG.
Neurofeedback Treatment: Can It Help Treat ADHD?
For example, neurologists explain how the ratio of theta and beta waves (T/B ratio or TBR) is different in the brain of someone with ADHD. Specifically, the frontal lobe shows less fast wave activity (beta) and more slow waves (theta) while awake.Other research shows differences in slow cortical potentials in people with ADHD.
Are Alpha Brain Waves Linked with Depression?
Types of Neurofeedback Therapies
Neurofeedback has been a treatment option since the 1970s and has evolved over time along with an advanced understanding of the brain and technology. Modern neurofeedback provides various forms of treatment options depending on the condition or symptoms being treated:
fMRI neurofeedback is being studied in the use of learning “mind control” over machines like computers, robots, and prosthetic limbs through increasing blood flow and neural activity in the somatosensory cortex.
What Does a Neurofeedback Session Look Like?
During a typical neurofeedback session, other than fMRI, you’ll sit in a chair with electrodes on your scalp. This is completely painless. It’s similar to the doctor using a stethoscope to listen to your heartbeat. And just like your heart, your brain can have an arrhythmia.
Your therapist will guide you through some simple activities while the EEG records the electrical impulses in your brain. Depending on your treatment plan, you may be asked to watch images on a screen, play a video game, or listen to music.
The electrodes provide instant audio and visual feedback about your brain activity. If you’re watching images on a screen, for example, the screen will become brighter when your brain produces favorable brainwave patterns. When it produces less desirable brainwave patterns, the screen dims. Similarly, a noisy waiting room full of people standing around is presented on the screen and you learn to engage in brain activity that causes the noise to decrease and everyone to sit down and become orderly.
It is amazing when someone learns they can control what they see on the computer screenthrough their mind. This instant feedback helps your brain learn what it needs to do to make the image on the screen respond, providing positive and negative feedback directly to you (a learning process known asoperant conditioning).
Over time, your brain figures out how to sustain the desired brainwave patterns (and minimize the production of undesired ones).
A neurofeedback session typically lasts between 30 and 60 minutes and usually involves 30 to 40 sessions. The number of sessions a person needs varies, but it’s rare for a person to need more than 40 sessions.
The techniques learned during neurofeedback can also be practiced when you’re engaged in normal, everyday activities at work, school, or home. This practice helps you train your brain to respond in a healthier way in the environments where you spend most of your time.
Neurostimulation is less about the self-regulation of brain activity and is a more passive approach to changing brain activity through electrical and magnetic brain stimulation. Typically a low-voltage electric current or electromagnetic pulse will be administered. More rarely, surgical procedures are involved.
Types Of Neurostimulation Therapies
A few examples of neurostimulation treatment options are listed below:
Deep Brain Stimulation Can Help Treat OCD Symptoms, Studies Show
Other Benefits of Neurotherapy
There are several advantages to neurotherapy that set it apart from other treatments, including:
Parkinson’s Disease Causes
Even outside of the clinical setting, commonly cited benefits include enhanced memory and focus, better mental clarity, and more restful sleep.Neurotherapy has even proved to be beneficial in sports training further enhancing athletic performance.
There is a plethora of research on neurotherapy and the results are encouraging, and the neurotechnology is continuing to develop at lightning speed. Below are just a few studies in support of neurotherapy:
Yet more research is needed to understand some of the conflicting results in the literature. For example, there appears to be a subset of people across studies who are unable to self-regulate their brain activity and therefore do not benefit from neurofeedback. The underlying mechanism driving these individual differences should be explored and possibly identified prior to treatment.
Neurotherapy can be used on its own, but it can be even more effective when used as an adjunct to traditional therapy approaches (such as cognitive-behavioral therapy).
While neurotherapy may help treat many conditions, there are also a few disadvantages associated with this approach. They include:
Factors such as these can make neurotherapy less appealing than other treatment methods for some people.
Your doctor may be able to refer you to a local neurotherapist. It is also helpful to check with your health insurance company to see if your policy will cover any or all of the treatment. If so, you may have to use a specific neurotherapy provider.
TheInternational Society for Neuroregulation & Researchalso offers an online directory that you can search based on your geographical location or the provider’s area of specialty. Doing a search for “neurotherapy near me” or “online neurotherapy” may offer additional results.
Get Help NowWe’ve tried, tested, and written unbiased reviews of thebest online therapy programsincluding Talkspace, BetterHelp, and ReGain. Find out which option is the best for you.
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We’ve tried, tested, and written unbiased reviews of thebest online therapy programsincluding Talkspace, BetterHelp, and ReGain. Find out which option is the best for you.
How Biofeedback Works
30 SourcesVerywell Mind uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Ashinoff BK, Abu-Akel A.Hyperfocus: The forgotten frontier of attention.Psychological Research. 2021;85(1):1-19. doi:10.1007%2Fs00426-019-01245-8Bakhshani NM.Impulsivity: A predisposition toward risky behaviors.Int J High Risk Behav Addict. 2014;3(2):e20428. doi:10.5812/ijhrba.20428Braunstein LM, Gross JJ, Ochsner KN.Explicit and implicit emotion regulation: A multi-level framework.Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience. 2017;12(10):1545-1557. doi:10.1093/scan/nsx096Oyola MG, Handa RJ.Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal and hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axes: Sex differences in regulation of stress responsivity.Stress. 2017;20(5):476-494. doi:10.1080/10253890.2017.1369523Kong M, Moreno MA.Sensory processing in children.JAMA Pediatr. 2018;172(12):1208. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2018.3774Chartier DR, Dellinger MB, Evans JR, Budzynski HK.Introduction to Quantitative EEG and Neurofeedback. 3rded. Elsevier; 2023.Wang T, Mantini D, Gillebert CR.The potential of real-time fMRI neurofeedback for stroke rehabilitation: A systematic review.Cortex. 2018;107:148-165. doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2017.09.006Linhartová P, Látalová A, Kóša B, Kašpárek T, Schmahl C, Paret C.fMRI neurofeedback in emotion regulation: A literature review.NeuroImage. 2019;193:75-92. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.03.011Russo GM, Smith S, Sperandio KR.A meta‐analysis of neurofeedback for treating substance use disorders.Jour of Counseling & Develop. 2023;101(2):143-156. doi:10.1002/jcad.12466UpToDate.Stages and architecture of normal sleep.Keynan JN, Cohen A, Jackont G, et al.Electrical fingerprint of the amygdala guides neurofeedback training for stress resilience.Nat Hum Behav. 2018;3(1):63-73. doi:10.1038/s41562-018-0484-3Food and Drug Administration.Title 21: Neurological diagnostic devices -21CFR882.1440. 2014.Kerson C, deBeus R, Lightstone H, et al.EEG theta/beta ratio calculations differ between various EEG neurofeedback and assessment software packages: Clinical interpretation.Clin EEG Neurosci. 2020;51(2):114-120. doi:10.1177/1550059419888320Stokes DA, Lappin MS.Neurofeedback and biofeedback with 37 migraineurs: A clinical outcome study.Behavioral and Brain Functions. 2010;6(1):9. doi:10.1186/1744-9081-6-9Zagorski N.FDA clears neurofeedback intervention for PTSD.PN. 2023;58(08). doi:10.1176/appi.pn.2023.08.8.60Marzbani H, Marateb HR, Mansourian M.Neurofeedback: A comprehensive review on system design, methodology and clinical applications.Basic Clin Neurosci. 2016;7(2);143-158. doi:10.15412/J.BCN.03070208Dudek E, Dodell-Feder D.The efficacy of real-time functional magnetic resonance imaging neurofeedback for psychiatric illness: A meta-analysis of brain and behavioral outcomes.Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 2021;121:291-306. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.12.020Dewiputri WI, Auer T.Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) neurofeedback: Implementations and applications.Malays J Med Sci. 2013;20(5):5-15.Ochs L.The low energy neurofeedback system (Lens): Theory, background, and introduction.Journal of Neurotherapy. 2006;10(2-3):5-39. doi:10.1300/J184v10n02_02Reed T, Cohen Kadosh R.Transcranial electrical stimulation (tES) mechanisms and its effects on cortical excitability and connectivity.J of Inher Metab Disea. 2018;41(6):1123-1130. doi:10.1007%2Fs10545-018-0181-4ClinicalTrials.gov, National Institutes of Health.Empower: tDCS for major depressive disorder at home.Van Doren J, Arns M, Heinrich H, Vollebregt MA, Strehl U, Loo SK.Sustained effects of neurofeedback in ADHD: A systematic review and meta-analysis.Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2019;28(3):293-305. doi:10.1007/s00787-018-1121-4Rydzik Ł, Wąsacz W, Ambroży T, Javdaneh N, Brydak K, Kopańska M.The use of neurofeedback in sports training: Systematic review.Brain Sciences. 2023;13(4):660. doi:10.3390/brainsci13040660Enriquez-Geppert S, Smit D, Pimenta MG, Arns M.Neurofeedback as a treatment intervention in ADHD: Current evidence and practice.Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2019;21(6). doi:10.1007/s11920-019-1021-4American Academy of Pediatrics.Evidence-based child and adolescent psychosocial interventions.White EK, Groeneveld KM, Tittle RK, et al.Combined neurofeedback and heart rate variability training for individuals with symptoms of anxiety and depression: A retrospective study.NeuroRegulation. 2017;4(1):37-37. doi:10.15540/nr.4.1.37van Hoogdalem LE, Feijs HME, Bramer WM, Ismail SY, van Dongen JDM.The effectiveness of neurofeedback therapy as an alternative treatment for autism spectrum disorders in children: A systematic review.J Psychophysiol. 2021;35(2):102-115. doi:10.1027/0269-8803/a000265van der Kolk BA, Hodgdon H, Gapen M, et al.A randomized controlled study of neurofeedback for chronic PTSD.PLoS One. 2016;11(12):e0166752. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0166752Panisch LS, Hai AH.The effectiveness of using neurofeedback in the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder: A systematic review.Trauma Violence Abuse. 2020;21(3):541-550. doi:10.1177/1524838018781103Li L, Wang Y, Zeng Y, et al.Multimodal neuroimaging predictors of learning performance of sensorimotor rhythm up-regulation neurofeedback.Front Neurosci. 2021;15:699999. doi:10.3389/fnins.2021.699999
30 Sources
Verywell Mind uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Ashinoff BK, Abu-Akel A.Hyperfocus: The forgotten frontier of attention.Psychological Research. 2021;85(1):1-19. doi:10.1007%2Fs00426-019-01245-8Bakhshani NM.Impulsivity: A predisposition toward risky behaviors.Int J High Risk Behav Addict. 2014;3(2):e20428. doi:10.5812/ijhrba.20428Braunstein LM, Gross JJ, Ochsner KN.Explicit and implicit emotion regulation: A multi-level framework.Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience. 2017;12(10):1545-1557. doi:10.1093/scan/nsx096Oyola MG, Handa RJ.Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal and hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axes: Sex differences in regulation of stress responsivity.Stress. 2017;20(5):476-494. doi:10.1080/10253890.2017.1369523Kong M, Moreno MA.Sensory processing in children.JAMA Pediatr. 2018;172(12):1208. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2018.3774Chartier DR, Dellinger MB, Evans JR, Budzynski HK.Introduction to Quantitative EEG and Neurofeedback. 3rded. Elsevier; 2023.Wang T, Mantini D, Gillebert CR.The potential of real-time fMRI neurofeedback for stroke rehabilitation: A systematic review.Cortex. 2018;107:148-165. doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2017.09.006Linhartová P, Látalová A, Kóša B, Kašpárek T, Schmahl C, Paret C.fMRI neurofeedback in emotion regulation: A literature review.NeuroImage. 2019;193:75-92. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.03.011Russo GM, Smith S, Sperandio KR.A meta‐analysis of neurofeedback for treating substance use disorders.Jour of Counseling & Develop. 2023;101(2):143-156. doi:10.1002/jcad.12466UpToDate.Stages and architecture of normal sleep.Keynan JN, Cohen A, Jackont G, et al.Electrical fingerprint of the amygdala guides neurofeedback training for stress resilience.Nat Hum Behav. 2018;3(1):63-73. doi:10.1038/s41562-018-0484-3Food and Drug Administration.Title 21: Neurological diagnostic devices -21CFR882.1440. 2014.Kerson C, deBeus R, Lightstone H, et al.EEG theta/beta ratio calculations differ between various EEG neurofeedback and assessment software packages: Clinical interpretation.Clin EEG Neurosci. 2020;51(2):114-120. doi:10.1177/1550059419888320Stokes DA, Lappin MS.Neurofeedback and biofeedback with 37 migraineurs: A clinical outcome study.Behavioral and Brain Functions. 2010;6(1):9. doi:10.1186/1744-9081-6-9Zagorski N.FDA clears neurofeedback intervention for PTSD.PN. 2023;58(08). doi:10.1176/appi.pn.2023.08.8.60Marzbani H, Marateb HR, Mansourian M.Neurofeedback: A comprehensive review on system design, methodology and clinical applications.Basic Clin Neurosci. 2016;7(2);143-158. doi:10.15412/J.BCN.03070208Dudek E, Dodell-Feder D.The efficacy of real-time functional magnetic resonance imaging neurofeedback for psychiatric illness: A meta-analysis of brain and behavioral outcomes.Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 2021;121:291-306. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.12.020Dewiputri WI, Auer T.Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) neurofeedback: Implementations and applications.Malays J Med Sci. 2013;20(5):5-15.Ochs L.The low energy neurofeedback system (Lens): Theory, background, and introduction.Journal of Neurotherapy. 2006;10(2-3):5-39. doi:10.1300/J184v10n02_02Reed T, Cohen Kadosh R.Transcranial electrical stimulation (tES) mechanisms and its effects on cortical excitability and connectivity.J of Inher Metab Disea. 2018;41(6):1123-1130. doi:10.1007%2Fs10545-018-0181-4ClinicalTrials.gov, National Institutes of Health.Empower: tDCS for major depressive disorder at home.Van Doren J, Arns M, Heinrich H, Vollebregt MA, Strehl U, Loo SK.Sustained effects of neurofeedback in ADHD: A systematic review and meta-analysis.Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2019;28(3):293-305. doi:10.1007/s00787-018-1121-4Rydzik Ł, Wąsacz W, Ambroży T, Javdaneh N, Brydak K, Kopańska M.The use of neurofeedback in sports training: Systematic review.Brain Sciences. 2023;13(4):660. doi:10.3390/brainsci13040660Enriquez-Geppert S, Smit D, Pimenta MG, Arns M.Neurofeedback as a treatment intervention in ADHD: Current evidence and practice.Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2019;21(6). doi:10.1007/s11920-019-1021-4American Academy of Pediatrics.Evidence-based child and adolescent psychosocial interventions.White EK, Groeneveld KM, Tittle RK, et al.Combined neurofeedback and heart rate variability training for individuals with symptoms of anxiety and depression: A retrospective study.NeuroRegulation. 2017;4(1):37-37. doi:10.15540/nr.4.1.37van Hoogdalem LE, Feijs HME, Bramer WM, Ismail SY, van Dongen JDM.The effectiveness of neurofeedback therapy as an alternative treatment for autism spectrum disorders in children: A systematic review.J Psychophysiol. 2021;35(2):102-115. doi:10.1027/0269-8803/a000265van der Kolk BA, Hodgdon H, Gapen M, et al.A randomized controlled study of neurofeedback for chronic PTSD.PLoS One. 2016;11(12):e0166752. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0166752Panisch LS, Hai AH.The effectiveness of using neurofeedback in the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder: A systematic review.Trauma Violence Abuse. 2020;21(3):541-550. doi:10.1177/1524838018781103Li L, Wang Y, Zeng Y, et al.Multimodal neuroimaging predictors of learning performance of sensorimotor rhythm up-regulation neurofeedback.Front Neurosci. 2021;15:699999. doi:10.3389/fnins.2021.699999
Verywell Mind uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.
Ashinoff BK, Abu-Akel A.Hyperfocus: The forgotten frontier of attention.Psychological Research. 2021;85(1):1-19. doi:10.1007%2Fs00426-019-01245-8Bakhshani NM.Impulsivity: A predisposition toward risky behaviors.Int J High Risk Behav Addict. 2014;3(2):e20428. doi:10.5812/ijhrba.20428Braunstein LM, Gross JJ, Ochsner KN.Explicit and implicit emotion regulation: A multi-level framework.Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience. 2017;12(10):1545-1557. doi:10.1093/scan/nsx096Oyola MG, Handa RJ.Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal and hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axes: Sex differences in regulation of stress responsivity.Stress. 2017;20(5):476-494. doi:10.1080/10253890.2017.1369523Kong M, Moreno MA.Sensory processing in children.JAMA Pediatr. 2018;172(12):1208. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2018.3774Chartier DR, Dellinger MB, Evans JR, Budzynski HK.Introduction to Quantitative EEG and Neurofeedback. 3rded. Elsevier; 2023.Wang T, Mantini D, Gillebert CR.The potential of real-time fMRI neurofeedback for stroke rehabilitation: A systematic review.Cortex. 2018;107:148-165. doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2017.09.006Linhartová P, Látalová A, Kóša B, Kašpárek T, Schmahl C, Paret C.fMRI neurofeedback in emotion regulation: A literature review.NeuroImage. 2019;193:75-92. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.03.011Russo GM, Smith S, Sperandio KR.A meta‐analysis of neurofeedback for treating substance use disorders.Jour of Counseling & Develop. 2023;101(2):143-156. doi:10.1002/jcad.12466UpToDate.Stages and architecture of normal sleep.Keynan JN, Cohen A, Jackont G, et al.Electrical fingerprint of the amygdala guides neurofeedback training for stress resilience.Nat Hum Behav. 2018;3(1):63-73. doi:10.1038/s41562-018-0484-3Food and Drug Administration.Title 21: Neurological diagnostic devices -21CFR882.1440. 2014.Kerson C, deBeus R, Lightstone H, et al.EEG theta/beta ratio calculations differ between various EEG neurofeedback and assessment software packages: Clinical interpretation.Clin EEG Neurosci. 2020;51(2):114-120. doi:10.1177/1550059419888320Stokes DA, Lappin MS.Neurofeedback and biofeedback with 37 migraineurs: A clinical outcome study.Behavioral and Brain Functions. 2010;6(1):9. doi:10.1186/1744-9081-6-9Zagorski N.FDA clears neurofeedback intervention for PTSD.PN. 2023;58(08). doi:10.1176/appi.pn.2023.08.8.60Marzbani H, Marateb HR, Mansourian M.Neurofeedback: A comprehensive review on system design, methodology and clinical applications.Basic Clin Neurosci. 2016;7(2);143-158. doi:10.15412/J.BCN.03070208Dudek E, Dodell-Feder D.The efficacy of real-time functional magnetic resonance imaging neurofeedback for psychiatric illness: A meta-analysis of brain and behavioral outcomes.Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 2021;121:291-306. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.12.020Dewiputri WI, Auer T.Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) neurofeedback: Implementations and applications.Malays J Med Sci. 2013;20(5):5-15.Ochs L.The low energy neurofeedback system (Lens): Theory, background, and introduction.Journal of Neurotherapy. 2006;10(2-3):5-39. doi:10.1300/J184v10n02_02Reed T, Cohen Kadosh R.Transcranial electrical stimulation (tES) mechanisms and its effects on cortical excitability and connectivity.J of Inher Metab Disea. 2018;41(6):1123-1130. doi:10.1007%2Fs10545-018-0181-4ClinicalTrials.gov, National Institutes of Health.Empower: tDCS for major depressive disorder at home.Van Doren J, Arns M, Heinrich H, Vollebregt MA, Strehl U, Loo SK.Sustained effects of neurofeedback in ADHD: A systematic review and meta-analysis.Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2019;28(3):293-305. doi:10.1007/s00787-018-1121-4Rydzik Ł, Wąsacz W, Ambroży T, Javdaneh N, Brydak K, Kopańska M.The use of neurofeedback in sports training: Systematic review.Brain Sciences. 2023;13(4):660. doi:10.3390/brainsci13040660Enriquez-Geppert S, Smit D, Pimenta MG, Arns M.Neurofeedback as a treatment intervention in ADHD: Current evidence and practice.Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2019;21(6). doi:10.1007/s11920-019-1021-4American Academy of Pediatrics.Evidence-based child and adolescent psychosocial interventions.White EK, Groeneveld KM, Tittle RK, et al.Combined neurofeedback and heart rate variability training for individuals with symptoms of anxiety and depression: A retrospective study.NeuroRegulation. 2017;4(1):37-37. doi:10.15540/nr.4.1.37van Hoogdalem LE, Feijs HME, Bramer WM, Ismail SY, van Dongen JDM.The effectiveness of neurofeedback therapy as an alternative treatment for autism spectrum disorders in children: A systematic review.J Psychophysiol. 2021;35(2):102-115. doi:10.1027/0269-8803/a000265van der Kolk BA, Hodgdon H, Gapen M, et al.A randomized controlled study of neurofeedback for chronic PTSD.PLoS One. 2016;11(12):e0166752. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0166752Panisch LS, Hai AH.The effectiveness of using neurofeedback in the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder: A systematic review.Trauma Violence Abuse. 2020;21(3):541-550. doi:10.1177/1524838018781103Li L, Wang Y, Zeng Y, et al.Multimodal neuroimaging predictors of learning performance of sensorimotor rhythm up-regulation neurofeedback.Front Neurosci. 2021;15:699999. doi:10.3389/fnins.2021.699999
Ashinoff BK, Abu-Akel A.Hyperfocus: The forgotten frontier of attention.Psychological Research. 2021;85(1):1-19. doi:10.1007%2Fs00426-019-01245-8
Bakhshani NM.Impulsivity: A predisposition toward risky behaviors.Int J High Risk Behav Addict. 2014;3(2):e20428. doi:10.5812/ijhrba.20428
Braunstein LM, Gross JJ, Ochsner KN.Explicit and implicit emotion regulation: A multi-level framework.Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience. 2017;12(10):1545-1557. doi:10.1093/scan/nsx096
Oyola MG, Handa RJ.Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal and hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axes: Sex differences in regulation of stress responsivity.Stress. 2017;20(5):476-494. doi:10.1080/10253890.2017.1369523
Kong M, Moreno MA.Sensory processing in children.JAMA Pediatr. 2018;172(12):1208. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2018.3774
Chartier DR, Dellinger MB, Evans JR, Budzynski HK.Introduction to Quantitative EEG and Neurofeedback. 3rded. Elsevier; 2023.
Wang T, Mantini D, Gillebert CR.The potential of real-time fMRI neurofeedback for stroke rehabilitation: A systematic review.Cortex. 2018;107:148-165. doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2017.09.006
Linhartová P, Látalová A, Kóša B, Kašpárek T, Schmahl C, Paret C.fMRI neurofeedback in emotion regulation: A literature review.NeuroImage. 2019;193:75-92. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.03.011
Russo GM, Smith S, Sperandio KR.A meta‐analysis of neurofeedback for treating substance use disorders.Jour of Counseling & Develop. 2023;101(2):143-156. doi:10.1002/jcad.12466
UpToDate.Stages and architecture of normal sleep.
Keynan JN, Cohen A, Jackont G, et al.Electrical fingerprint of the amygdala guides neurofeedback training for stress resilience.Nat Hum Behav. 2018;3(1):63-73. doi:10.1038/s41562-018-0484-3
Food and Drug Administration.Title 21: Neurological diagnostic devices -21CFR882.1440. 2014.
Kerson C, deBeus R, Lightstone H, et al.EEG theta/beta ratio calculations differ between various EEG neurofeedback and assessment software packages: Clinical interpretation.Clin EEG Neurosci. 2020;51(2):114-120. doi:10.1177/1550059419888320
Stokes DA, Lappin MS.Neurofeedback and biofeedback with 37 migraineurs: A clinical outcome study.Behavioral and Brain Functions. 2010;6(1):9. doi:10.1186/1744-9081-6-9
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