Table of ContentsView AllTable of ContentsDefinitionsHow It WorksKey Principles of Classical Conditioning in PsychologyExamplesWhat Is the Difference Between Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning?CriticismsFrequently Asked Questions
Table of ContentsView All
View All
Table of Contents
Definitions
How It Works
Key Principles of Classical Conditioning in Psychology
Examples
What Is the Difference Between Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning?
Criticisms
Frequently Asked Questions
Close
One of the best-known examples of classical conditioning is Pavlov’s classic experiments with dogs. In these experiments, the neutral signal was the sound of a tone and the naturally occurring reflex was salivating in response to food. By associating the neutral stimulus (sound) with the unconditioned stimulus (food), the sound of the tone alone could produce a salivation response.
Verywell / Joshua Seong
Classical Conditioning Definitions
Classical conditioning—also sometimes referred to as Pavlovian conditioning—uses a few different terms to help explain the learning process. Knowing these basics will help you understand classical conditioning.
Unconditioned Stimulus
Anunconditioned stimulusis a stimulus or trigger that leads to an automatic response. If a cold breeze makes you shiver, for instance, the cold breeze is an unconditioned stimulus; it produces an involuntary response (the shivering).
Neutral Stimulus
A neutral stimulus is a stimulus that doesn’t initially trigger a response on its own. If you hear the sound of a fan but don’t feel the breeze, for example, it wouldn’t necessarily trigger a response. That would make it a neutral stimulus.
Conditioned Stimulus
Unconditioned Response
Anunconditioned responseis an automatic response or a response that occurs without thought when an unconditioned stimulus is present. If you smell your favorite food and your mouth starts watering, the watering is an unconditioned response.
Conditioned Response
1:18Click Play to Learn More About Classical Conditioning
1:18
Click Play to Learn More About Classical Conditioning
How Classical Conditioning Works
Classical conditioning involves forming an association between two stimuli, resulting in a learned response.There are three basic phases of this process.
Phase 1: Before Conditioning
The first part of the classical conditioning process requires a naturally occurring stimulus that will automatically elicit a response. Salivating in response to the smell of food is a good example of a naturally occurring stimulus.
During this phase of the process, the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) results in an unconditioned response (UCR).Presenting food (the UCS) naturally and automatically triggers a salivation response (the UCR).
At this point, there is also a neutral stimulus that produces no effect—yet. It isn’t until the neutral stimulus is paired with the UCS that it will come to evoke a response.
Let’s take a closer look at the two critical components of this phase of classical conditioning:
In thebefore conditioningphase, an unconditioned stimulus is paired with an unconditioned response. A neutral stimulus is then introduced.
Phase 2: During Conditioning
During the second phase of the classical conditioning process, the previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus. As a result of this pairing, an association between the previously neutral stimulus and the UCS is formed.
At this point, the once neutral stimulus becomes known as the conditioned stimulus (CS). The subject has now been conditioned to respond to this stimulus. The conditioned stimulus is a previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response.
In our earlier example, suppose that when you smelled your favorite food, you also heard the sound of a whistle. While the whistle is unrelated to the smell of the food, if the sound of the whistle was paired multiple times with the smell, the whistle sound would eventually trigger the conditioned response. In this case, the sound of the whistle is the conditioned stimulus.
Theduring conditioningphase involves repeatedly pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus. Eventually, the neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus.
Phase 3: After Conditioning
Once the association has been made between the UCS and the CS, presenting the conditioned stimulus alone will come to evoke a response—even without the unconditioned stimulus. The resulting response is known as the conditioned response (CR).
The conditioned response is the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus. In our example, the conditioned response would be feeling hungry when you heard the sound of the whistle.
In theafter conditioningphase, the conditioned stimulus alone triggers the conditioned response.
Behaviorists have described a number of different phenomena associated with classical conditioning. Some of these elements involve the initial establishment of the response while others describe the disappearance of a response. Here is a closer look at five key principles of classical conditioning.
Acquisition
Acquisition is the initial stage of learning, when a response is first established and gradually strengthened.During the acquisition phase of classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
As you may recall, an unconditioned stimulus is something that naturally and automatically triggers a response without any learning. After an association is made, the subject will begin to emit a behavior in response to the previously neutral stimulus, which is now known as a conditioned stimulus. It is at this point that we can say that the response has been acquired.
Once the response has been established, you can gradually reinforce the response to make sure the behavior is well learned.
Acquisition in Classical Conditioning
Extinction
Extinction is when the occurrences of a conditioned response decrease or disappear. In classical conditioning, this happens when a conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
For example, if the smell of food (the unconditioned stimulus) had been paired with the sound of a whistle (the conditioned stimulus), the sound of the whistle would eventually come to evoke the conditioned response of hunger.
However, if the smell of food were no longer paired with the whistle, eventually the conditioned response (hunger) would disappear.
Extinction in Classical Conditioning
Spontaneous Recovery
Sometimes a learned response can suddenly reemerge, even after a period of extinction. This is called spontaneous recovery.
For example, imagine that after training a dog to salivate to the sound of a bell, you stop reinforcing the behavior and the response becomes extinct. After a rest period during which the conditioned stimulus is not presented, you ring the bell and the animal spontaneously recovers the previously learned response.
If the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are no longer associated, extinction will return very rapidly after a spontaneous recovery.
What Is Spontaneous Recovery?
Generalization
Stimulus generalization is the tendency for a conditioned stimulus to evoke similar responses after the response has been conditioned.For example, if a dog has been conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell, the animal may also exhibit the same response to a sound that’s similar to the bell.
What Is Stimulus Generalization in Psychology?
Discrimination
Discrimination is the ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
For example, if a bell tone were the conditioned stimulus, discrimination would involve being able to tell the difference between the bell tone and other similar sounds. Because the subject is able to distinguish between these stimuli, they will only respond when the conditioned stimulus is presented.
Understanding Stimulus Discrimination
What Are Examples of Classical Conditioning?
It can be helpful to look at a few examples of how the classical conditioning process operates both in experimental and real-world settings.
Fear Response
John B. Watson’sexperiment with Little Albert is an example of the fear response.The child initially showed no fear of a white rat, but after the rat was paired repeatedly with loud, scary sounds, the child began to cry when the rat was present.
By repeatedly pairing the rat with the unconditioned stimulus, the white rat (now the conditioned stimulus) came to evoke the fear response (now the conditioned response).
Taste Aversions
Another example of classical conditioning is the development of conditionedtaste aversions. Researchers John Garcia and Bob Koelling first noticed this phenomenon when they observed how rats that had been exposed to nausea-causing radiation developed an aversion to flavored water after the radiation and water were presented together.
In this example, the radiation represents the unconditioned stimulus and nausea represents the unconditioned response. After the pairing of the two, the flavored water is the conditioned stimulus, while nausea that formed when exposed to the water alone is the conditioned response.
Later research demonstrated that such classically conditioned aversions could be produced through a single pairing of the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus.
Researchers also found that such aversions can even develop if the conditioned stimulus (the taste of the food) is presented several hours before the unconditioned stimulus (the nausea-causing stimulus).
Why do such associations develop so quickly? Forming such associations can have survival benefits. If an animal eats something that makes it ill, it needs to avoid eating the same food in the future to avoid sickness or even death.
This is an example ofbiological preparedness. Some associations form more readily because they aid in survival.
In one famous field study, researchers injected sheep carcasses with a poison that would make coyotes sick but not kill them. The goal was to help sheep ranchers reduce the number of sheep lost to coyote killings.
Organizational Behavior
Classical conditioning can also have applications in business and marketing. For example, it can be used to help people form favorable attitudes toward products, businesses, or brands.
While there may not be a direct link between the item and the consumer response, creating this association may help motivate people to purchase certain products because they have developed a favorable opinion of them due to classical conditioning.
What Is the Difference Between Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning?Operant conditioningis a learning method in which a specific behavior is associated with either a positive or negative consequence. This form of learning links voluntary actions with receiving either a reward or punishment, often to strengthen or weaken those voluntary behaviors.Classical conditioning is a learning process focused more on involuntary behaviors, using associations with neutral stimuli to evoke a specific involuntary response.
Operant conditioningis a learning method in which a specific behavior is associated with either a positive or negative consequence. This form of learning links voluntary actions with receiving either a reward or punishment, often to strengthen or weaken those voluntary behaviors.Classical conditioning is a learning process focused more on involuntary behaviors, using associations with neutral stimuli to evoke a specific involuntary response.
Operant conditioningis a learning method in which a specific behavior is associated with either a positive or negative consequence. This form of learning links voluntary actions with receiving either a reward or punishment, often to strengthen or weaken those voluntary behaviors.
Classical conditioning is a learning process focused more on involuntary behaviors, using associations with neutral stimuli to evoke a specific involuntary response.
Criticisms of Classical Conditioning
Some psychologists maintain that classical conditioning represents a reductive, mechanical explanation for some behaviors. Some other criticisms of classical conditioning center on the fact that:
However, the approach still holds great fascination for researchers and relevance in modern psychology.
In reality, people do not respond exactly likePavlov’s dogs. There are, however, numerous real-world applications for classical conditioning. For example, many dog trainers use classical conditioning techniques to help people train their pets.
These techniques are also useful for helping people cope with phobias oranxiety problems. Therapists might, for example, repeatedly pair something that provokes anxiety with relaxation techniques in order to create an association.
Frequently Asked QuestionsIvan Pavlov discovered classical conditioning. Pavlov was passionate about physiology, even earning gold medals for his work in this field. It was in his position as director of a physiological laboratory that he began to connect physiological research with reflex response and regulation.Implicit memory is a memory that you can recall effortlessly or without thought. Classical conditioning uses this automatic memory to create associations with a neutral stimulus. The association is learned without conscious awareness.Learn More:Implicit Memory vs. Explicit MemoryBehavioral therapies use the principles of classical conditioning to help people change negative behaviors. The thought behind these therapies is that we learn from our environment.Cognitive behavioral therapyandexposure therapyare two types of behavioral therapy.Learn More:What Is Behavioral Therapy?
Ivan Pavlov discovered classical conditioning. Pavlov was passionate about physiology, even earning gold medals for his work in this field. It was in his position as director of a physiological laboratory that he began to connect physiological research with reflex response and regulation.
Implicit memory is a memory that you can recall effortlessly or without thought. Classical conditioning uses this automatic memory to create associations with a neutral stimulus. The association is learned without conscious awareness.Learn More:Implicit Memory vs. Explicit Memory
Implicit memory is a memory that you can recall effortlessly or without thought. Classical conditioning uses this automatic memory to create associations with a neutral stimulus. The association is learned without conscious awareness.
Learn More:Implicit Memory vs. Explicit Memory
Behavioral therapies use the principles of classical conditioning to help people change negative behaviors. The thought behind these therapies is that we learn from our environment.Cognitive behavioral therapyandexposure therapyare two types of behavioral therapy.Learn More:What Is Behavioral Therapy?
Behavioral therapies use the principles of classical conditioning to help people change negative behaviors. The thought behind these therapies is that we learn from our environment.Cognitive behavioral therapyandexposure therapyare two types of behavioral therapy.
Learn More:What Is Behavioral Therapy?
14 SourcesVerywell Mind uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Wolpe J, Plaud JJ.Pavlov’s contributions to behavior therapy. The obvious and not so obvious.Am Psychol.1997;52(9):966-72.Windholz G.Pavlov on the conditioned reflex method and its limitations.Am J Psychol.1995;108(4):575-88.Holland JG.Behaviorism: Part of the problem or part of the solution.J Appl Behav Anal.1978;11(1):163-74. doi:10.1901/jaba.1978.11-163Rouleau N, Karbowski LM, Persinger MA.Experimental evidence of classical conditioning and microscopic engrams in an electroconductive material.PLoS ONE.2016;11(10):e0165269. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0165269Morè L, Jensen G.Acquisition of conditioned responding in a multiple schedule depends on the reinforcement’s temporal contingency with each stimulus.Learn Mem.2014;21(5):258-62. doi: 10.1101/lm.034231.113Lattal KM, Lattal KA.Facets of Pavlovian and operant extinction.Behav Processes.2012;90(1):1-8. doi:10.1016/j.beproc.2012.03.009Thanellou A, Green JT.Spontaneous recovery but not reinstatement of the extinguished conditioned eyeblink response in the rat.Behav Neurosci.2011;125(4):613-25. doi:10.1037/a0023582Dunsmoor JE, Mitroff SR, Labar KS.Generalization of conditioned fear along a dimension of increasing fear intensity.Learn Mem.2009;16(7):460-9. doi:10.1101/lm.1431609Murray JE, Li C, Palmatier MI, Bevins RA.The interoceptive Pavlovian stimulus effects of caffeine.Pharmacol Biochem Behav.2007;86(4):838-46. doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2007.03.013Hofmann SG.Cognitive processes during fear acquisition and extinction in animals and humans: implications for exposure therapy of anxiety disorders.Clin Psychol Rev.2008;28(2):199-210. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2007.04.009Lin JY, Arthurs J, Reilly S.Conditioned taste aversion, drugs of abuse and palatability.Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2014;45:28-45. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.05.001Åhs F, Rosén J, Kastrati G, Fredrikson M, Agren T, Lundström JN.Biological preparedness and resistance to extinction of skin conductance responses conditioned to fear relevant animal pictures: A systematic review.Neurosci Biobehav Rev.2018;95:430-437. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.10.017Griffiths Jr R, Connolly G, Burns R, Sterner R.Coyotes, sheep and lithium chloride.Proceed 8th Vertebrate Pest Conf. 1978:23.The Nobel Prize.Ivan Pavlov biographical.Additional ReadingBreedlove SM.Principles of Psychology. Oxford University Press.Nevid JS.Psychology: Concepts and Applications. Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
14 Sources
Verywell Mind uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Wolpe J, Plaud JJ.Pavlov’s contributions to behavior therapy. The obvious and not so obvious.Am Psychol.1997;52(9):966-72.Windholz G.Pavlov on the conditioned reflex method and its limitations.Am J Psychol.1995;108(4):575-88.Holland JG.Behaviorism: Part of the problem or part of the solution.J Appl Behav Anal.1978;11(1):163-74. doi:10.1901/jaba.1978.11-163Rouleau N, Karbowski LM, Persinger MA.Experimental evidence of classical conditioning and microscopic engrams in an electroconductive material.PLoS ONE.2016;11(10):e0165269. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0165269Morè L, Jensen G.Acquisition of conditioned responding in a multiple schedule depends on the reinforcement’s temporal contingency with each stimulus.Learn Mem.2014;21(5):258-62. doi: 10.1101/lm.034231.113Lattal KM, Lattal KA.Facets of Pavlovian and operant extinction.Behav Processes.2012;90(1):1-8. doi:10.1016/j.beproc.2012.03.009Thanellou A, Green JT.Spontaneous recovery but not reinstatement of the extinguished conditioned eyeblink response in the rat.Behav Neurosci.2011;125(4):613-25. doi:10.1037/a0023582Dunsmoor JE, Mitroff SR, Labar KS.Generalization of conditioned fear along a dimension of increasing fear intensity.Learn Mem.2009;16(7):460-9. doi:10.1101/lm.1431609Murray JE, Li C, Palmatier MI, Bevins RA.The interoceptive Pavlovian stimulus effects of caffeine.Pharmacol Biochem Behav.2007;86(4):838-46. doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2007.03.013Hofmann SG.Cognitive processes during fear acquisition and extinction in animals and humans: implications for exposure therapy of anxiety disorders.Clin Psychol Rev.2008;28(2):199-210. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2007.04.009Lin JY, Arthurs J, Reilly S.Conditioned taste aversion, drugs of abuse and palatability.Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2014;45:28-45. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.05.001Åhs F, Rosén J, Kastrati G, Fredrikson M, Agren T, Lundström JN.Biological preparedness and resistance to extinction of skin conductance responses conditioned to fear relevant animal pictures: A systematic review.Neurosci Biobehav Rev.2018;95:430-437. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.10.017Griffiths Jr R, Connolly G, Burns R, Sterner R.Coyotes, sheep and lithium chloride.Proceed 8th Vertebrate Pest Conf. 1978:23.The Nobel Prize.Ivan Pavlov biographical.Additional ReadingBreedlove SM.Principles of Psychology. Oxford University Press.Nevid JS.Psychology: Concepts and Applications. Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
Verywell Mind uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.
Wolpe J, Plaud JJ.Pavlov’s contributions to behavior therapy. The obvious and not so obvious.Am Psychol.1997;52(9):966-72.Windholz G.Pavlov on the conditioned reflex method and its limitations.Am J Psychol.1995;108(4):575-88.Holland JG.Behaviorism: Part of the problem or part of the solution.J Appl Behav Anal.1978;11(1):163-74. doi:10.1901/jaba.1978.11-163Rouleau N, Karbowski LM, Persinger MA.Experimental evidence of classical conditioning and microscopic engrams in an electroconductive material.PLoS ONE.2016;11(10):e0165269. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0165269Morè L, Jensen G.Acquisition of conditioned responding in a multiple schedule depends on the reinforcement’s temporal contingency with each stimulus.Learn Mem.2014;21(5):258-62. doi: 10.1101/lm.034231.113Lattal KM, Lattal KA.Facets of Pavlovian and operant extinction.Behav Processes.2012;90(1):1-8. doi:10.1016/j.beproc.2012.03.009Thanellou A, Green JT.Spontaneous recovery but not reinstatement of the extinguished conditioned eyeblink response in the rat.Behav Neurosci.2011;125(4):613-25. doi:10.1037/a0023582Dunsmoor JE, Mitroff SR, Labar KS.Generalization of conditioned fear along a dimension of increasing fear intensity.Learn Mem.2009;16(7):460-9. doi:10.1101/lm.1431609Murray JE, Li C, Palmatier MI, Bevins RA.The interoceptive Pavlovian stimulus effects of caffeine.Pharmacol Biochem Behav.2007;86(4):838-46. doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2007.03.013Hofmann SG.Cognitive processes during fear acquisition and extinction in animals and humans: implications for exposure therapy of anxiety disorders.Clin Psychol Rev.2008;28(2):199-210. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2007.04.009Lin JY, Arthurs J, Reilly S.Conditioned taste aversion, drugs of abuse and palatability.Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2014;45:28-45. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.05.001Åhs F, Rosén J, Kastrati G, Fredrikson M, Agren T, Lundström JN.Biological preparedness and resistance to extinction of skin conductance responses conditioned to fear relevant animal pictures: A systematic review.Neurosci Biobehav Rev.2018;95:430-437. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.10.017Griffiths Jr R, Connolly G, Burns R, Sterner R.Coyotes, sheep and lithium chloride.Proceed 8th Vertebrate Pest Conf. 1978:23.The Nobel Prize.Ivan Pavlov biographical.
Wolpe J, Plaud JJ.Pavlov’s contributions to behavior therapy. The obvious and not so obvious.Am Psychol.1997;52(9):966-72.
Windholz G.Pavlov on the conditioned reflex method and its limitations.Am J Psychol.1995;108(4):575-88.
Holland JG.Behaviorism: Part of the problem or part of the solution.J Appl Behav Anal.1978;11(1):163-74. doi:10.1901/jaba.1978.11-163
Rouleau N, Karbowski LM, Persinger MA.Experimental evidence of classical conditioning and microscopic engrams in an electroconductive material.PLoS ONE.2016;11(10):e0165269. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0165269
Morè L, Jensen G.Acquisition of conditioned responding in a multiple schedule depends on the reinforcement’s temporal contingency with each stimulus.Learn Mem.2014;21(5):258-62. doi: 10.1101/lm.034231.113
Lattal KM, Lattal KA.Facets of Pavlovian and operant extinction.Behav Processes.2012;90(1):1-8. doi:10.1016/j.beproc.2012.03.009
Thanellou A, Green JT.Spontaneous recovery but not reinstatement of the extinguished conditioned eyeblink response in the rat.Behav Neurosci.2011;125(4):613-25. doi:10.1037/a0023582
Dunsmoor JE, Mitroff SR, Labar KS.Generalization of conditioned fear along a dimension of increasing fear intensity.Learn Mem.2009;16(7):460-9. doi:10.1101/lm.1431609
Murray JE, Li C, Palmatier MI, Bevins RA.The interoceptive Pavlovian stimulus effects of caffeine.Pharmacol Biochem Behav.2007;86(4):838-46. doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2007.03.013
Hofmann SG.Cognitive processes during fear acquisition and extinction in animals and humans: implications for exposure therapy of anxiety disorders.Clin Psychol Rev.2008;28(2):199-210. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2007.04.009
Lin JY, Arthurs J, Reilly S.Conditioned taste aversion, drugs of abuse and palatability.Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2014;45:28-45. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.05.001
Åhs F, Rosén J, Kastrati G, Fredrikson M, Agren T, Lundström JN.Biological preparedness and resistance to extinction of skin conductance responses conditioned to fear relevant animal pictures: A systematic review.Neurosci Biobehav Rev.2018;95:430-437. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.10.017
Griffiths Jr R, Connolly G, Burns R, Sterner R.Coyotes, sheep and lithium chloride.Proceed 8th Vertebrate Pest Conf. 1978:23.
The Nobel Prize.Ivan Pavlov biographical.
Breedlove SM.Principles of Psychology. Oxford University Press.Nevid JS.Psychology: Concepts and Applications. Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
Breedlove SM.Principles of Psychology. Oxford University Press.
Nevid JS.Psychology: Concepts and Applications. Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
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