On This Page:ToggleHow Do Interviews Work?Structured InterviewUnstructured InterviewFocus Group InterviewSemi-Structured InterviewInterviewer EffectInterview DesignInterview ScheduleThe Power of SilenceInterviewing ChildrenRecording & TranscriptionEthical Issues
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Interviews involve a conversation with a purpose, but have some distinct features compared to ordinary conversation, such as being scheduled in advance, having an asymmetry in outcome goals between interviewer and interviewee, and often following a question-answer format.Interviews are different from questionnaires as they involve social interaction. Unlike questionnaire methods, researchers need training in interviewing (which costs money).
Interviews involve a conversation with a purpose, but have some distinct features compared to ordinary conversation, such as being scheduled in advance, having an asymmetry in outcome goals between interviewer and interviewee, and often following a question-answer format.
Interviews are different from questionnaires as they involve social interaction. Unlike questionnaire methods, researchers need training in interviewing (which costs money).
The interview method in psychology is a data collection technique where a researcher engages in direct conversation with individuals to gather information about their thoughts, experiences, and behaviors. It involves asking structured or open-ended questions to elicit responses that can provide insights into various psychological phenomena. Interviews can be used in clinical assessments, research studies, and therapeutic settings, allowing for in-depth exploration of topics and the subjective experiences of individuals. This method helps researchers understand subjective perspectives, obtain qualitative data, and gain a deeper understanding of human behavior and psychological processes.
How Do Interviews Work?
Researchers can ask different types of questions, generatingdifferent types of data. For example, closed questions provide people with a fixed set of responses, whereas open questions allow people to express what they think in their own words.
The researcher will often record interviews, and the data will be written up as a transcript (a written account of interview questions and answers) which can be analyzed later.
It should be noted that interviews may not be the best method for researching sensitive topics (e.g., truancy in schools, discrimination, etc.) as people may feel more comfortable completing a questionnaire in private.
There are different types of interviews, with a key distinction being the extent of structure. Semi-structured is most common in psychology research. Unstructured interviews have a free-flowing style, while structured interviews involve preset questions asked in a particular order.
Structured Interview
A structured interview is a quantitative research method where the interviewer a set of prepared closed-ended questions in the form of an interview schedule, which he/she reads out exactly as worded.
Interviews schedules have a standardized format, meaning the same questions are asked to each interviewee in the same order (see Fig. 1).
Figure 1.An example of an interview schedule
A structured interview is also known as a formal interview (like a job interview).
Unstructured Interview
Unstructured interviews do not use any set questions, instead, the interviewer asks open-ended questions based on a specific research topic, and will try to let the interview flow like a natural conversation. The interviewer modifies his or her questions to suit the candidate’s specific experiences.
Unstructured interviews are sometimes referred to as ‘discovery interviews’ and are more like a ‘guided conservation’ than a strictly structured interview. They are sometimes called informal interviews.
Unstructured interviews are most useful inqualitative researchto analyze attitudes and values. Though they rarely provide a valid basis for generalization, their main advantage is that they enable the researcher to probe social actors’ subjective points of view.
Interviewer Self-Disclosure
Interviewer self-disclosure involves the interviewer revealing personal information or opinions during the research interview. This may increase rapport but risks changing dynamics away from a focus on facilitating the interviewee’s account.
In unstructured interviews, the informal conversational style may deliberately include elements of interviewer self-disclosure, mirroring ordinary conversation dynamics.
Focus Group Interview
Focus group interviewis a qualitative approach where a group of respondents are interviewed together, used to gain an in‐depth understanding of social issues.
Thistypeofinterviewisoftenreferredtoasafocusgroupbecausethejoboftheinterviewer(ormoderator)istobringthegrouptofocus on the issue at hand. Initially, the goal was to reach a consensus among the group, but with the development of techniques for analyzing group qualitative data, there is less emphasis on consensus building.
The method aims to obtain data from a purposely selected group of individuals rather than from a statistically representative sample of a broader population.
The role of the interview moderator is to make sure the group interacts with each other and do not drift off-topic. Ideally, the moderator will be similar to the participants in terms of appearance, have adequate knowledge of the topic being discussed, and exercise mild unobtrusive control over dominant talkers and shy participants.
A researcher must be highly skilled to conduct a focus group interview. For example, the moderator may need certain skills, including the ability to establish rapport and know when to probe.
For example, group interviews may sometimes lackvalidityas participants may lie to impress the other group members. They may conform to peer pressure and give false answers.
To avoid these pitfalls, the interviewer needs to have a good understanding of how people function in groups as well as how to lead the group in a productive discussion.
Semi-Structured Interview
In semi-structured interviews, the interviewer has more freedom to digress and probe beyond the answers. The interview guide contains a list of questions and topics that need to be covered during the conversation, usually in a particular order.
Semi-structured interviews are most useful to address the ‘what’, ‘how’, and ‘why’ research questions. Bothqualitative and quantitative analysescan be performed on data collected during semi-structured interviews.
The Interviewer Effect
Face-to-face interviews raise methodological problems. These stem from the fact that interviewers are themselves role players, and their perceived status may influence the replies of the respondents.
Because an interview is a social interaction, the interviewer’s appearance or behavior may influence the respondent’s answers. This is a problem as it can bias the results of the study and make them invalid.
For example, the gender, ethnicity, body language, age, and social status of the interview can all create an interviewer effect. If there is a perceived status disparity between the interviewer and the interviewee, the results of interviews have to be interpreted with care. This is pertinent for sensitive topics such as health.
For example, if a researcher was investigating sexism amongst males, would a female interview be preferable to a male? It is possible that if a female interviewer was used, male participants might lie (i.e., pretend they are not sexist) to impress the interviewer, thus creating an interviewer effect.
Flooding interviews with researcher’s agenda
The interactional nature of interviews means the researcher fundamentally shapes the discourse, rather than just neutrally collecting it. This shapes what is talked about and how participants can respond.
Interview Design
First, you must choose whether to use a structured or non-structured interview.
Characteristics of Interviewers
Next, you must consider who will be the interviewer, and this will depend on what type of person is being interviewed. There are several variables to consider:
Interview Location
The location of a research interview can influence the way in which the interviewer and interviewee relate and may exaggerate a power dynamic in one direction or another. It is usual to offer interviewees a choice of location as part of facilitating their comfort and encouraging participation.
However, the safety of the interviewer is an overriding consideration and, as mentioned, a minimal requirement should be that a responsible person knows where the interviewer has gone and when they are due back.
Remote Interviews
The COVID-19 pandemic necessitated remote interviewing for research continuity. However online interview platforms provide increased flexibility even under normal conditions.
They enable access to participant groups across geographical distances without travel costs or arrangements. Online interviews can be efficiently scheduled to align with researcher and interviewee availability.
There are practical considerations in setting up remote interviews. Interviewees require access to internet and an online platform such as Zoom, Microsoft Teams or Skype through which to connect.
Certain modifications help build initial rapport in the remote format. Allowing time at the start of the interview for casual conversation while testing audio/video quality helps participants settle in. Minor delays can disrupt turn-taking flow, so alerting participants to speak slightly slower than usual minimizes accidental interruptions.
Keeping remote interviews under an hour avoids fatigue for stare at a screen. Seeking advanced ethical clearance for verbal consent at the interview start saves participant time. Adapting to the remote context shows care for interviewees and aids rich discussion.
However, it remains important to critically reflect on how removing in-person dynamics may shape the co-created data. Perhaps some nuances of trust and disclosure differ over video.
Vulnerable Groups
The interviewer must ensure that they take special care when interviewing vulnerable groups, such as children. For example, children have a limited attention span, so lengthy interviews should be avoided.
Developing an Interview Schedule
An interview schedule is a list of pre-planned, structured questions that have been prepared, to serve as a guide for interviewers, researchers and investigators in collecting information or data about a specific topic or issue.
The key is balancing preparation with the flexibility to adapt questions based on each interview interaction. With practice, you’ll gain skills to conduct productive interviews that obtain rich qualitative data.
The Power of Silence
Strategic use of silence is a key technique to generate interviewee-led data, but it requires judgment about appropriate timing and duration to maintain mutual understanding.
Interviewing Children
By understanding the unique challenges and employing these solutions, interviewers can create a more child-friendly and effective interview process, promoting accurate and reliable information gathering from young witnesses.
Pitfalls to Avoid
Using directive questioning:Adults naturally gravitate towards a directive questioning style, particularly when interviewing children. This approach involves asking a series of focused questions that prompt for specific details, such as “Where was your mom when you got hurt?”. While directive questions are sometimes necessary, relying on them can lead to several issues:
Speculation and misinterpretation:Children may misinterpret questions due to immature language and memory skills, leading them to speculate or provide inaccurate information. For example, children might not fully grasp the meaning of words like “before” and “after”.
Limited information:Directive questions often result in brief answers, restricting the child’s opportunity to provide a full and detailed account of the event.
Ignoring developmental differences:Failing to accommodate children’s developmental levels can significantly impact the interview’s effectiveness. Consider these factors:
Language development:Young children may not understand complex vocabulary, grammatical structures, or abstract concepts. For instance, words like “aunt” and “uncle” can be challenging for children because their meaning shifts depending on the speaker.
Memory capabilities:Children’s memory abilities are still developing, making them more susceptible to memory errors and suggestibility. Questions that repeatedly cue specific details can inadvertently alter their recollections.
Attention span and fatigue:Children, especially younger ones, have shorter attention spans and tire more easily than adults.Lengthy interviews or those with excessive questioning can lead to fatigue and reduce the quality of their responses.
Solutions
Recording & Transcription
Design choices
Design choices around recording and engaging closely with transcripts influence analytic insights, as well as practical feasibility. Weighing up relevant tradeoffs is key.
Transcribing Interviews & Focus Groups
Here are the steps for transcribing interviews:
The goal is to produce a formatted written record of the verbal interview exchange that captures the meaning and highlights important passages ready for the coding process. Careful transcription is the vital first step in analysis.
Coding Transcripts
Ethical Issues
Informed Consent
The participant information sheet must give potential interviewees a good idea of what is involved if taking part in the research.
This will include the general topics covered in the interview, where the interview might take place, how long it is expected to last, how it will be recorded, the ways in which participants’ anonymity will be managed, and incentives offered.
It might be considered good practice to consider true informed consent in interview research to require two distinguishable stages:
Power and Vulnerability
This creates tensions withqualitative approaches,often having an empathetic ethos seeking to center subjective perspectives. Analysis should balance openness to offered accounts with critically examining stakes and motivations behind them.
Sources
Potter, J., & Hepburn, A. (2005). Qualitative interviews in psychology: Problems and possibilities.Qualitative research in Psychology,2(4), 281-307.
Houtkoop-Steenstra, H. (2000).Interaction and the standardized survey interview: The living questionnaire. Cambridge University Press
Madill, A. (2011). Interaction in the semi-structured interview: A comparative analysis of the use ofand response to indirect complaints.Qualitative Research in Psychology, 8(4), 333–353.
Maryudi, A., & Fisher, M. (2020). The power in the interview: A practical guide for identifying the critical role of actor interests in environment research.Forest and Society, 4(1), 142–150
O’Key, V., Hugh-Jones, S., & Madill, A. (2009). Recruiting and engaging with people in deprived locales: Interviewing families about their eating patterns.Social Psychological Review, 11(20), 30–35.
Puchta, C., & Potter, J. (2004).Focus group practice. Sage.
Schaeffer, N. C. (1991). Conversation with a purpose— Or conversation? Interaction in the standardized interview. In P. P. Biemer, R. M. Groves, L. E. Lyberg, & N. A. Mathiowetz (Eds.),Measurement errors in surveys(pp. 367–391). Wiley.
Silverman, D. (1973). Interview talk: Bringing off a research instrument.Sociology, 7(1), 31–48.
Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc
BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education
Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.
Saul McLeod, PhD
BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester
Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.
