What do the examiners look for?
Accurate and detailed knowledgeClear, coherent and focused answersEffective use of terminology (use the “technical terms”)In application questions, examiners look for “effective application to the scenario” which means that you need to describe the theory and explain the scenario using the theory making the links between the two very clear. If there is more than one individual in the scenario you must mention all of the characters to get to the top band.Difference between AS and A level answersThe descriptions follow the same criteria; however you have to use the issues and debates effectively in your answers. “Effectively” means that it needs to be clearly linked and explained in the context of the answer.Read the model answers to get a clearer idea of what is needed.
In application questions, examiners look for “effective application to the scenario” which means that you need to describe the theory and explain the scenario using the theory making the links between the two very clear. If there is more than one individual in the scenario you must mention all of the characters to get to the top band.
The descriptions follow the same criteria; however you have to use the issues and debates effectively in your answers. “Effectively” means that it needs to be clearly linked and explained in the context of the answer.
Read the model answers to get a clearer idea of what is needed.
Exam Paper Advice
In the exam, you will be asked a range of questions on the topic of stress, which may include questions about research methods or using mathematical skills based on research into relationships.
As in Paper One and Two, you may be asked a 16-mark question, which could include an item (6 marks for AO1 Description, 4 marks for AO2 Application and 6 marks AO3 Evaluation) or simply to discuss the topic more generally (6 marks AO1 Description and 10 marks AO2 Evaluation).
There is no guarantee that a 16-mark question will be asked in this topic though so it is important to have a good understanding of all of the different areas linked to the topic.
There will be 24 marks for stress questions, so you can expect to spend about 30 minutes on this section, but this is not a strict rule.
Physiology of stress
Stress is a pattern of negative physiological states and psychological responses occurring in situations where people perceive threats to their well being which they may be unable to meet.
The level of stress depends on the individual’s perception of the event and their perception of their ability to cope with the event.
General Adaptation syndrome (GAS)-Seley (1936)AO1
In this model, Seley describes the process of responding to a stressor in three stages:
Stage 1: alarmOnce the stressor is perceived, the physiological responses to deal with it are activated.
Stage 2: resistanceIf the threat does not subside, the body tries to cope. Hormones are released to provide the body with the energy needed to deal with the stressor. If the stressor persists and becomes chronic the elevated levels of hormones could be damaging the cardiovascular system. However, the individual appears to be coping.
Stage 3: exhaustionThe resources needed are becoming drained; the individual is experiencing the same symptoms than in the alarm stage e.g. fast heart rate. The immune system is weakened and diseases are likely to develop e.g. infections and cardiovascular disorders such as raised blood pressure.
AO3
Selye’s model was the first to accurately describe the physiological changes that occur during the stress response. This later led to further research in the negative effects of stress on health.
This challenges the GAS model. Furthermore, these experiments were carried out on animals who are different from humans cognitively and emotionally. According to the transactional model, in humans the individual’s perception of the stressor and their perception of their ability to cope with it influence the stress response. This is unlikely to be the same in animals.
Another difference is that animals are also more passive in the way they respond to stress; humans are likely to take measures to escape the stressor or at least reduce its impact whereas animals are unlikely to do so.
The GAS model suggests that human responses to stressors are the same for all people; however, Mason (1975) argued that when we are presented with a stressor, we make an assessment of the situation. This influences the physiological response we produce (transactional model).
Furthermore, gender influences the physiological response to stress so do individual characteristics such as personality type andlocus of control.rmal/desirable.
Physiological response: The body has two types of response:One response is responsible for acute stress. It uses thesympathomedullary pathway (SAM).The acute stress response aims at enabling us to escape danger so it has to be fast therefore it, initially, uses nerve impulses rather than hormones to produce changes.The other is responsible for chronic stress. It uses thehypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal system (HPA).It is slower to produce a response but the response lasts for a longer period of time.
Physiological response: The body has two types of response:
One response is responsible for acute stress. It uses thesympathomedullary pathway (SAM).The acute stress response aims at enabling us to escape danger so it has to be fast therefore it, initially, uses nerve impulses rather than hormones to produce changes.The other is responsible for chronic stress. It uses thehypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal system (HPA).It is slower to produce a response but the response lasts for a longer period of time.
One response is responsible for acute stress. It uses thesympathomedullary pathway (SAM).The acute stress response aims at enabling us to escape danger so it has to be fast therefore it, initially, uses nerve impulses rather than hormones to produce changes.
The other is responsible for chronic stress. It uses thehypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal system (HPA).It is slower to produce a response but the response lasts for a longer period of time.
Acute stress response: Sympathomedullary Pathway (SAM)(AO1)
The aim of this response is to provide oxygen and glucose to the skeletal muscles (the muscles which enable us to “fight or flight”).
When a stressor is perceives the hypothalamus activates the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system. This, in turn, causes the adrenal medulla to release adrenaline into the bloodstream. Thisprepares the body for “fight or flight”. The adrenaline and noradrenaline increase the heart rate and the breathing rate, the blood circulation is redirected to the skeletal muscles and the digestion stops.
When the stressor subsides the parasympathetic branch of the nervous system is activated and the heart and breathing rate decrease, the digestion restarts and all other functions go back to their normal level.
Chronic stress response: hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal system (HPA)(AO1)
This response occurs when the stressor is chronic; the aim of this response is to provide energy for a long period of time. It does not need to be fast so it uses hormones as a way of transmitting signals.
Cortisol mobilises glucose stored in the liver, this provides a constant supply of energy for the body to deal with the stressor.
AO2 Scenario Question
Kevin has been looking after his disabled wife and their young daughter for the last two years as well as working full-time. He was coping very well to start with but he is now feeling ill and his doctor found that he has high blood pressure. Kevin also seems to catch colds and other minor infections easily.
Role of cortisol(AO1)
Cortisol also has an anti-inflammatory role however; it also leads to a weakening of the immune system. This increases the likelihood of infections.
Cortisol constricts blood vessels and increases blood pressure to enhance the delivery of oxygenated blood. This is advantageous for fight-or-flight situations but over time, such arterial constriction and high blood pressure can lead to vessel damage and plaque build-up, this can lead to cardiovascular disorders.
Most of the studies carried out on stress were done on men. The results cannot be generalised to women as gender influences the response to stressors. However, psychologists assume that the “fight or flight” response apply to all humans, this shows a gender bias.
Psychological factors are not taken into account. People carry out appraisal of the stressors and their response will vary depending on whether they think they have the resources to cope with the stressors (transactional model).
The studies carried out on the stress response scientific, they used objective data e.g. the amount of adrenaline.
Application: based on our knowledge of the stress response, people who suffer from Addison’s disease are given cortisol to cope with stress. Although this remains a serious condition requiring with cortisol treatment and frequent medical monitoring, people can lead a fairly normal life, whereas previously Addison’s disease was fatal.
Role of stress in illness
The main systems affected are the immune system and the cardiovascular system.
Stress and immunosuppressionAO1
Short-term stress enhances the immune systemFirdaus Dhabhar (2008) subjected rats to mild stress and found that the stress caused a substantial mobilisation of several key types of immune cells into the bloodstream and other parts of the body.Then they injected rats whose adrenal glands had been removed with a mixture of stress hormones observed in the rats in the previous experiment and found the same effect.Conclusion:Short-term stress enhances the immune system; this is due to the action of adrenaline, noradrenalin and cortisol.
Short-term stress enhances the immune system
Firdaus Dhabhar (2008) subjected rats to mild stress and found that the stress caused a substantial mobilisation of several key types of immune cells into the bloodstream and other parts of the body.Then they injected rats whose adrenal glands had been removed with a mixture of stress hormones observed in the rats in the previous experiment and found the same effect.Conclusion:Short-term stress enhances the immune system; this is due to the action of adrenaline, noradrenalin and cortisol.
Then they injected rats whose adrenal glands had been removed with a mixture of stress hormones observed in the rats in the previous experiment and found the same effect.
Conclusion:
Short-term stress enhances the immune system; this is due to the action of adrenaline, noradrenalin and cortisol.
Chronic stress reduces the functioning of the immune systemKiecolt-Glaser et al. (1984) iinvestigated whether stress of important examinations has an effect on the functioning of the immune system.A volunteer sample was used: 75 American medical students.She took a blood sample from Ps 1 month before an important exam (low stress) and during the exam (high stress). The NK cells activity was measured.The Ps also completed questionnaires to assess psychological factors such as psychiatric symptoms, life events and loneliness.Results: the NK cells activity was lower* in the second sample (high stress). This was particularly true for those Ps who a high score on life events and reported feeling lonely.* Low activity of the NK cells means that the immune system is weakened.
Chronic stress reduces the functioning of the immune system
Kiecolt-Glaser et al. (1984) iinvestigated whether stress of important examinations has an effect on the functioning of the immune system.A volunteer sample was used: 75 American medical students.She took a blood sample from Ps 1 month before an important exam (low stress) and during the exam (high stress). The NK cells activity was measured.The Ps also completed questionnaires to assess psychological factors such as psychiatric symptoms, life events and loneliness.Results: the NK cells activity was lower* in the second sample (high stress). This was particularly true for those Ps who a high score on life events and reported feeling lonely.* Low activity of the NK cells means that the immune system is weakened.
A volunteer sample was used: 75 American medical students.She took a blood sample from Ps 1 month before an important exam (low stress) and during the exam (high stress). The NK cells activity was measured.
The Ps also completed questionnaires to assess psychological factors such as psychiatric symptoms, life events and loneliness.Results: the NK cells activity was lower* in the second sample (high stress). This was particularly true for those Ps who a high score on life events and reported feeling lonely.
- Low activity of the NK cells means that the immune system is weakened.
However, this was not a representative sample (HIV weakens the immune system significantly). The link between stress and cancer is weak and difficult to establish, according to Kissane, compared to the influence lifestyle and genetic factors.
Stefan and Marcus went skateboarding last week and as usual sustained a few cuts and bruises. Stefan cuts still look red and inflamed whereas Marcus’s cuts are healed. Stefan is preparing for his final exams in chemistry whereas Marcus completed his course last year and has a job.
Use your knowledge of the relationship between stress and illness to explain the different outcomes. (6 marks)
Stress and the cardiovascular systemAO1
The prolonged exposure to stress causes hardening of the arteries through deposit of plaque, this results in high blood pressure and coronary heart disease (CHD).
This can be through the direct action of the stress hormones but also, because of the change of lifestyle often associated with chronic stress e.g. poor diet, excessive drinking, smoking and lack of exercise.
Yusuf et al. (2004) carried out a study of patients who had suffered heart attacks (myocardial infarction) in 52 countries, with a sample of 15152 cases and 14820 controls.
They found that, although lifestyle factors such as smoking were influential, stress including workplace stressors and life events had a significant impact on the rate of heart attacks. This impact was greater than obesity.
Evaluation of the effect of stress on health:AO3
Sources of stress & measuring stress
Life changesAO1
Major life events are significant events that change the way we live our daily lives. These events disrupt our normal routine. If our normal routines are disrupted we have to think about how to do things that we normally do on ‘auto-pilot’. This means we have to use much more mental energy – what Holmes & Rahe called ‘psychic energy’.
Both positive and negative events require adjustment so they are both considered as sources of stress.
To measure the effect of life changes Homes and Rahe (1967) developed the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS). 43 life events were taken from 5000 patient records, 400 participants scored the life events in terms of the readjustment needed i.e. marriage = 50. Scores for individual life events were added and averaged to produce a life change unit (LCU) for each event.
Application questionsSophie and Daniel have been made redundant. Sophie is quite depressed and does not see any future for herself, whereas Daniel is starting his own business and is looking forward to getting his first order.
Explain how this scenario highlights a weakness of the life changes as a source of stress. (4 marks)
Although Rahe is not a key study you could be asked to describe a study on this topic.
Rahe et al.(1967): The aim of the study was to find out if life changes correlated with illness.Rahe used a ‘normal’ population – not those who were already suffering of any known disorders. His sample consisted of 2700 members of US navy.All life events of previous 6 months recorded – before a tour of duty using a questionnaire and a LCU score was calculated for each participant.
During the tour of duty, every illness no matter how minor had to be reported.The participants were unaware of the aim of the study.
Evaluation of life events as a source of stress:AO3
Hassles and upliftsAO1
Lazarus focused on everyday life stresses.
How do they lead to stress?
Daily hassles accumulate over the course of the day and therefore provide a more significant source of stress than life changes. (accumulation effect)
Severe life changes may make participants more susceptible to daily hassles. (amplification effect)
Khanner et al. (1981) created a hassles scale containing 117 items covering all aspects of life including work, family and friends. The respondent rates the severity of the hassle on a three points scale. The uplifts scale contains 135 positive items such as getting a good night sleep. The individual indicates how often they have experienced these events over a particular period of time.
Although Kanner is not a key study you could be asked to describe a study on this topic.Daily hassles: Kanner et al (1981)
Aim: To investigate an association between daily hassles, uplifts and symptoms of stress and compare the outcome with the use of the SRRS as a predictor of stress symptoms.Procedure: 100 American white, middle class men and women, aged 45-64 were studied. They completed the “Hassles & Uplifts” questionnaire once a month, for 10 months. They also completed a version of the SRRS one month before the start of the study and another one during the study. The participants completed a further questionnaire measuring the psychological symptoms of depression and anxiety.
Findings: Daily Hassles were positively correlated with psychological symptoms associated with stress such as anxiety and depression. There was a negative correlation between uplifts and stress symptoms in women but not in men. Daily Hassles was found to be a better predictor of stress symptoms than life events.
Daily uplifts:Gervais et al. (2005), nurses were asked to keep diaries for a month, recording daily hassles and uplifts connected with their job. They were also asked to rate their own performance over the same period.Results showed that nurses felt the uplifts usually counteracted the negative effects of their daily hassles, and also improve their performance.
Workplace stressAO1
Workplace stressors are aspects of the workplace environment which elicit a stress response therefore which we experience as stressful.There are many workplace stressors but the syllabus focuses on:
Control: In many organisations, other people determine workload, work patterns and limit the number and type of decisions employees can make.Workload: How much work and the type of work a person does. Too much and too little can lead to stress.
According to Karasek (1979)
Although neither Marmot et al. or Johansson et al. (1978) are mentioned as key studies you could be asked to describe a study on this topic. So you need to learn one of them in detail and use the other one as support for the other.
*Prospective studywatches for outcomes e.g. the development of a disease, during a period and relates this to other factors. It involves taking a sample of participants and observing them over a long period.
It was a natural experiment, comparing two groups of employees in a Swedish sawmill.Procedure:Group 1: 14 “finishers”, their work was highly repetitive and they had no control over the pace at which their work was carried out (machine paced). The pay of all other employees depended on their productivity.Group 2: 10 cleaners who had more control over their workload, less responsibility and more opportunities for social contacts.The levels of adrenaline and noradrenalin in their urine were measured both at work and in their free time, and the number of illnesses and absences from work were recorded.Findings: The finishers had higher levels of stress hormones even before starting work and it increased during the day than those in the low stress group. Their levels of illness and absenteeism were also higher.Conclusions: Repetitiveness, high demand/workload and lack of control chronic stress and the development of stress-related illnesses.
Measuring stress
SCR measures the skin’s resistance to electricity. When people are stressed they sweat this lowers the skin’s resistance to electricity.People have a higher SCR when they are stressed than when they are not as their damp skin conducts electricity better.A measurement of SCR is made when people are in low stress condition, this measure is then compared to another measurement made when the same person is in a high stress condition, and this shows the intensity of the stress response.
Personality factors
Personality typesAO1
In the 1960s Friedman and Rosenman (both were cardiologists) studied the behavior of the patients suffering from coronary heart disease, they found that they displayed some distinctive behavioral patterns.
• Competitive: they are driven individuals, set themselves targets, ambitious.• Time urgent and impatient: they have little time for creative pursuits, multitasking and fast-talking.• Hostile and aggressive: intolerant, inflexible and get angry quickly.
• Relaxed• One thing at a time• Patient• Express feelings
Although Rahe is not a key study you could be asked to describe a study on this topic.Friedman and Rosenman (1974)
They used a prospective study, their aim was to investigate the links between type A behavior patterns and cardiovascular disease.
Findings:At the end of the study 257 men had developed CHD, 70% of those were from the type A group.These results were significant even when risk factors such as smoking and obesity were taken into account.Conclusions: Type A behavior pattern is risk factor for heart disease.
Type C personalities are detail oriented, people pleasers, passive and patient. They suppress wants, needs and feelings. The repression of anger is thought to make them more prone to developing cancer.Dattore et al. (1980) carried out a prospective study on 200 veterans of the Vietnam War. The participants completed scales measuring repression of feelings and symptoms of depression.
By the end of the study, 75 of the participants were diagnosed with cancer; these typically had reported significantly more repression of feelings and less symptoms of depression than the other participants.This supports a link between Type C personality and cancer. However, the findings are inconsistent and Nakaya et al. (2002) did not support this link.
HardinessAO1
Kobasa and Maddi (1979) identified a personality structure consisting of three aspects:uote>
Commitmentis one of the factors of hardiness. Hardy people are involved in the world around them and have a sense of purpose.
Challengeis one of the factors of hardiness. Hardy people see challenges as problems to be overcome rather than as stressors. They see change as a challenge and stressful situations as opportunities to learn rather than as a source of stress.
Kobasa (1979)Sample: 670 American male business executive (age: 40-49). They were assessed stress using the SRRS. According to this measure 150 Ps were found to have high stress, however some of them had high illness scores but some had unexpectedly low illness scores indicating that a factor was mediating the effects of life events. The participants who were high on stress but low on illness, scored high on the three characteristics: control, challenge and commitment. This supports shows that the level of hardiness mediates the effects of stress.
Kobasa (1979)
Sample: 670 American male business executive (age: 40-49). They were assessed stress using the SRRS. According to this measure 150 Ps were found to have high stress, however some of them had high illness scores but some had unexpectedly low illness scores indicating that a factor was mediating the effects of life events. The participants who were high on stress but low on illness, scored high on the three characteristics: control, challenge and commitment. This supports shows that the level of hardiness mediates the effects of stress.
Coping with stress
Physiological methods of stress management: drugsAO1
The physiological methods of stress management involve the use of drugs to target the stress response systems.
Anxiolytic drugs: Benzodiazepines (BZs)Benzodiazepines enhance the action of a neurotransmitter, GABA that inhibits the activity of neurons in most areas of the brain. GABA allows more chlorine ions to enter the neurons, this makes it more difficult for other neurotransmitters to stimulate them. BZs boost this action, allowing an even greater number of chlorine ions into the neurons. This reduces the effect of excitatory neurotransmitters such as serotonin and the person feels calmer.AO3BZs work quickly which can be useful in case of emergency but are unsuitable for long term use e.g. chronic stressors. However, BZs are very addictive and should not be prescribed for more than 4 weeks. Furthermore, patients develop tolerance to BZs which means that they need an ever higher dose to feel the benefits, this increases their risk of developing side-effects such as unsteadiness, difficulties in concentrating and long-term memory impairment. Some patients report an increase in aggressiveness.Davidson (1993) found that 78% patients suffering fromsocial anxiety disordertreated with BZs showed an improvement, compared with only 20 % in the participants on a placebo. This was still the case when reviewed 2 years later. However, they reported side-effects such as drowsiness, forgetfulness and unsteadiness.
Anxiolytic drugs: Benzodiazepines (BZs)
Benzodiazepines enhance the action of a neurotransmitter, GABA that inhibits the activity of neurons in most areas of the brain. GABA allows more chlorine ions to enter the neurons, this makes it more difficult for other neurotransmitters to stimulate them. BZs boost this action, allowing an even greater number of chlorine ions into the neurons. This reduces the effect of excitatory neurotransmitters such as serotonin and the person feels calmer.AO3BZs work quickly which can be useful in case of emergency but are unsuitable for long term use e.g. chronic stressors. However, BZs are very addictive and should not be prescribed for more than 4 weeks. Furthermore, patients develop tolerance to BZs which means that they need an ever higher dose to feel the benefits, this increases their risk of developing side-effects such as unsteadiness, difficulties in concentrating and long-term memory impairment. Some patients report an increase in aggressiveness.Davidson (1993) found that 78% patients suffering fromsocial anxiety disordertreated with BZs showed an improvement, compared with only 20 % in the participants on a placebo. This was still the case when reviewed 2 years later. However, they reported side-effects such as drowsiness, forgetfulness and unsteadiness.
Benzodiazepines enhance the action of a neurotransmitter, GABA that inhibits the activity of neurons in most areas of the brain. GABA allows more chlorine ions to enter the neurons, this makes it more difficult for other neurotransmitters to stimulate them. BZs boost this action, allowing an even greater number of chlorine ions into the neurons. This reduces the effect of excitatory neurotransmitters such as serotonin and the person feels calmer.
Beta-blockers e.g. PropranololWhen the acute stress response occurs the adrenal medulla produces adrenaline. This is transported to the heart where it stimulates the beta receptors thus increasing the heart rate and blood pressure. Beta-blockers are used to block the receptors which prevent the rise of the heart rate and the blood pressure. They also decrease sweating and shaking (tremors).AO3Beta-blockers do not have the serious side effects observed with the use of BZs. However, they are unsuitable for people who suffer from diabetes or depression. Furthermore, beta-blockers have side-effects such as nausea, blurred vision and depression.They are effective and work rapidly so are helpful if the effects of stress are severe and rapid relief is needed.
Beta-blockers e.g. Propranolol
When the acute stress response occurs the adrenal medulla produces adrenaline. This is transported to the heart where it stimulates the beta receptors thus increasing the heart rate and blood pressure. Beta-blockers are used to block the receptors which prevent the rise of the heart rate and the blood pressure. They also decrease sweating and shaking (tremors).AO3Beta-blockers do not have the serious side effects observed with the use of BZs. However, they are unsuitable for people who suffer from diabetes or depression. Furthermore, beta-blockers have side-effects such as nausea, blurred vision and depression.They are effective and work rapidly so are helpful if the effects of stress are severe and rapid relief is needed.
When the acute stress response occurs the adrenal medulla produces adrenaline. This is transported to the heart where it stimulates the beta receptors thus increasing the heart rate and blood pressure. Beta-blockers are used to block the receptors which prevent the rise of the heart rate and the blood pressure. They also decrease sweating and shaking (tremors).
Psychological therapy: Stress Inoculation Therapy (SIT)AO1
Stress inoculation therapy is a form of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT).
It involves a person identifying the causes of stress (e.g. the features of the stressful situation) and the irrational thoughts which accompany these before offering cognitive and behavioral skills which will help a person better cope with the demands of the situation.
The client learns to use these skills in a safe environment e.g. through visualising stressful situations, then they go out into the real world and put their training to the test. Part of this stage is also to learn to deal with setbacks (see them as challenges providing an opportunity to learn rather than as failures).
In most cases, SIT consists of between 8-15 sessions, plus follow-up sessions after a few months.
Holcom (1986)Psychiatric patients suffering from severe stress and anxiety disorders were divided in 3 groups : group 1-Patients received SIT only, group 2- Patients received SIT and drugs and group 3 -Patients were give drugs only. The results show that SIT was better than drugs in reducing the symptoms of anxiety and depression. This effect was maintained, after three years the patients in the SIT group required fewer admissions for psychiatric problems than the other treatment groups.This suggests that SIT is effective and that it has a long-term positive effect.
Holcom (1986)
Psychiatric patients suffering from severe stress and anxiety disorders were divided in 3 groups : group 1-Patients received SIT only, group 2- Patients received SIT and drugs and group 3 -Patients were give drugs only. The results show that SIT was better than drugs in reducing the symptoms of anxiety and depression. This effect was maintained, after three years the patients in the SIT group required fewer admissions for psychiatric problems than the other treatment groups.This suggests that SIT is effective and that it has a long-term positive effect.
BiofeedbackAO1
Biofeedback therapy involves training the client to control involuntary physiological processes such as muscle tension, blood pressure, or heart rate.
The reason why we cannot usually do this is because we are not aware of these processes. This therapy, therefore, makes these processes visible to the client through the use of technology such as heart monitors (electrocardiograms), the use of electromyograms (which shows the tension in the muscles) and skin conductance response (SCR) .
Sessions are usually an hour long, most people will start to see positive results after 10 sessions. However, some patients may need many more sessions.
Gender differences in coping with stressAO1
The type of social support an individual receives depends on the social network and individual has but also on their gender and their culture. Social support buffers the effects of stress in five different ways according to Stroebe (2000).
Problem-focused strategies: aim at changing or eliminating the source of the stress in practical ways which tackle the problem that is causing stress, therefore directly reducing the stress response.
Most people use both types of strategies but to various extents and in response to different stressors.
Ptacek et al. (2014) found that men and women were similar in their appraisal of an identical stressor but they coped with it differently. Women reported seeking social support and using emotion-focused coping more than men; men reported using more problem-focused strategies than women.
Tamres et al. (2002) in a meta-analysis found women were more likely to engage in emotion-focused strategies such seeking social support and positive self-talk and ruminating about problems than men supporting the dispositional hypothesis. She also found support for the role constraint theory as other gender differences were dependent on the nature of the stressor.
The role of social support in coping with stressAO1
Esteem support: when the individual feels that sources of support value them. This makes the individual feel valued and more competent in dealing with the stressor.
Appraisal support: others help the individual to assess the stressor and its effects. This helps in establishing a realistic view of the situation.
Informational support: others give information and guidance on how to deal with the stressful situations or feedback on the strategies used.
Instrumental support: it can be indirect such as helping out in order for the individual to have more time and energy to deal with the stressor or direct such as lending money if the stressor is financial difficulties.
Orth-Gomer et al. (1993): In a sample of 700 50 years old Swedish men. She found that smoking and lack of social support were the two leading risk factors for CHD in these middle-aged men.
Saul McLeod, PhD
BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester
Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.
Elisabeth BrookesPsychology TeacherBSc (Hons), PsychologyElisabeth Brookes has worked as a psychology teacher at Luton Sixth Form College.
Elisabeth BrookesPsychology TeacherBSc (Hons), Psychology
Elisabeth Brookes
Psychology Teacher
BSc (Hons), Psychology
Elisabeth Brookes has worked as a psychology teacher at Luton Sixth Form College.
