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Stockholm Syndrome is a psychological phenomenon where captives develop positive feelings towards their captors. It’s primarily associated with hostage situations and kidnappings, though it can occur in various abusive contexts.
In some instances, the victims form bonds with their captors and may even becomesympathetictowards them, the opposite of feeling fear, terror, and disdain, which one may expect in these situations.
The term originated from a 1973 bank robbery in Stockholm, Sweden. During a six-day standoff, four hostages formed emotional bonds with their captors, even defending them after release.
CriminologistNils Bejerot coined the term “Stockholm Syndrome” to describe this unexpected response.
Key aspects of Stockholm Syndrome include:
Interestingly, the syndrome doesn’t occur in all captive situations, and its exact causes remain unclear. Some experts view it as an aspect of emotional abuse or trauma bonding rather than a standalone syndrome.
This complexity highlights the intricate nature of human psychological responses to extreme situations.
The exact causes of Stockholm Syndrome aren’t fully understood, but it’s believed to be a survival mechanism. Victims may form bonds with their captors as a way to cope with extreme, frightening situations.
Several factors may contribute to its development:
In these situations, victims often experience conflicting emotions. While feeling threatened, they’re also reliant on their captor for survival, potentially leading to feelings of sympathy, empathy, or even love.
This phenomenon shares similarities with trauma bonding, where victims form emotional attachments in abusive relationships. Both involve a cycle of intermittent good and bad behavior, with victims enduring negative treatment in anticipation of positive moments.
It’s important to note that developing some positive feelings towards a captor doesn’t necessarily indicate Stockholm Syndrome.
Extended interaction with anyone can lead to complex emotions, and captives may genuinely share some views or ideals with their captors, challenging the black-and-white perception of kidnappers as entirely evil.
Interestingly, famous cases often involve female victims, which could be due to women being more frequently kidnapped, or societal bias in interpreting women’s compassionate responses as Stockholm Syndrome.
These factors highlight the nuanced nature of human psychology in extreme situations, reminding us to avoid oversimplification when analyzing such cases.
Some experts argue that Stockholm Syndrome and trauma bonding are essentially indistinguishable, emphasizing the complex nature of psychological responses to captivity and abuse.
Impact on Mental Health
Although Stockholm Syndrome is not listed as a formal mental health diagnosis, people who experience this syndrome seem to have some common symptoms, including:
Positive feelings towards the captor.
Support of the captor’s behavior and the reasoning behind it.
The victim begins to perceive their captor’s humanity and believes they share the same goals and values.
They make little to no effort to escape.
A belief in the goodness of the captors.
As the victims get rewarded, perhaps with less abuse or with life itself, the captor’s appeasing behaviors are reinforced.
Feelings of pity towards the captors, even believing that the captors are the victims themselves.
They may have feelings of wanting to ‘save’ their abuser.
Aside fromhaving an attachmentor bond with their captor, the victims may also develop different feelings towards outsiders the situation. For instance, they may:
Be unwilling to engage in any behaviors that could assist in their release.
Have negative feelings towards their friends or family who may try to rescue them.
Develop negative feelings towards the police, authority figures, or anyone who might be trying to help them get away from their captor.
Refuse to cooperate against their captor, such as during the subsequent investigation or during legal trials.
Refuse to leave their captors even when given the opportunity to escape.
Believe that the police and other authorities do not have their best interests at heart.
Even after being released from captivity, the person with Stockholm Syndrome may continue to have positive feelings towards their captor and may report some of the following symptoms:
Confusion
Guilt
Denial
Social withdrawal
Chronic feelings of tension
Anxiety
Depression
Feeling empty or hopeless
Excessive dependence
Loss of interest in previously enjoyed activities
Embarrassment about their emotions toward the captor
Being unwilling to learn to detach from their captor and heal
Being less loyal to themselves than to their captor
People with Stockholm Syndrome may often report symptoms that are similar to those withposttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), such as:
Being easily startled
Feelings of distrust
Feelings of unreality
Flashbacks
Irritability
Nightmares
Trouble concentrating
Insomnia
Whilst not everyone who experiences feelings of Stockholm Syndrome will have all the symptoms or even most of them, they may experience some to varying degrees.
Since the existence of Stockholm Syndrome itself is questionable, many may interpret this phenomenon in different ways and have their own ideas about what it is.
Examples
There have been a few famous historical cases that researchers have believed were examples of someone having Stockholm Syndrome.
These examples appear to show that these individuals may have had some level of positive feelings toward their captors. Whether these are actually examples of Stockholm Syndrome is up for debate.
In 1933, four men held 25-year-old Mary McElroy at gunpoint, chained her to walls in an abandoned farmhouse, and demanded a ransom from her family.When she was released, she had reportedly struggled to name her captors in their trial and had publicly expressed sympathy for them. whilst she agreed that her captors should receive punishment, she still visited them whilst they were in prison.
In 1933, four men held 25-year-old Mary McElroy at gunpoint, chained her to walls in an abandoned farmhouse, and demanded a ransom from her family.
When she was released, she had reportedly struggled to name her captors in their trial and had publicly expressed sympathy for them. whilst she agreed that her captors should receive punishment, she still visited them whilst they were in prison.
During her captivity, Hearst was reported to have renounced her family, adopted a new name, and even joined her captors in robbing banks.
She was later arrested and claimed she had Stockholm Syndrome as a defense in her trial.
When she eventually escaped, and her captor had committed suicide, it was reported that she ‘wept inconsolably.’ Kampusch denied that she had Stockholm Syndrome and suggested the relationship with her kidnapper was complex.
She said, ‘I find it very natural that you would adapt yourself to identify with your kidnapper, especially if you spend a great deal of time with that person.’
Can Stockholm Syndrome be applied to other situations?
While Stockholm Syndrome is typically associated with hostage situations, it can be applied to various other relationships and circumstances:
Abusive Relationships:
Sex Trafficking:
A study of female sex workers in India found conditions associated with Stockholm Syndrome (Karan & Hansen, 2018):
Sports Coaching:
These applications highlight the complex psychological responses to various forms of captivity or abuse, demonstrating that Stockholm Syndrome-like behaviors can emerge in diverse contexts beyond traditional hostage situations.
Coping
Since Stockholm Syndrome is not a recognizable psychological disorder and does not have a standardized definition, there are no official treatments recommended for it.
People are thought to experience traits of Stockholm Syndrome after a traumatic event, such as being held hostage or being the victim of an abusive relationship.
Getting back into normal life after coming away from a traumatic event can be exceedingly difficult for someone. It may be hard for the victims to talk about their experiences as it can re-traumatize them.
Many individuals may find that they have associated conditions following the traumatic event, such as the development ofPTSD,anxiety, anddepression. Therefore, it may be beneficial for them to get the right treatment to help these conditions.
Therapy is a useful treatment for the recovery of these conditions. This can include the use of psychotherapy to address the specific symptoms that may appear after the traumatic event, such as nightmares or flashbacks.
Therapycan help to teach individuals healthy ways to cope with their trauma, help them process the way that they feel, and discuss anyunhelpful thinking patternsthat may emerge as a result of the event.
Through treatment, the individual may grow to recognize that sympathizing with their captor was a survival skill and that their thoughts about the captor do not serve them now they are safe.
Therapy can also help the person to recognizepositive emotionsthat can help them to understand that what happened to them was not their fault.
How to help someone who may be experiencing Stockholm Syndrome
As a loved one of someone who may have gone through a traumatic event and may be displaying traits of Stockholm Syndrome, there are some ways to support the individual through their emotions:
Listen without judgment– as the victim is considering everything that has happened to them and they are trying to process their experiences,listen and use reflectionto show your concern and validation.
Avoid polarization– when listening to the victim, it may be unhelpful to try to convince them of the villainous traits of their abuser. This can cause the victim to polarize and defend their captor. They may also not want to share their experiences with you.
Further information
Namnyak, M., Tufton, N., Szekely, R., Toal, M., Worboys, S., & Sampson, E. L. (2008). ‘Stockholm syndrome’: psychiatric diagnosis or urban myth?. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 117(1), 4-11.
Bachand, C., & Djak, N. (2018). Stockholm syndrome in athletics: A Paradox.Children Australia, 43(3), 175-180.Cantor, C., & Price, J. (2007). Traumatic entrapment, appeasement and complex post-traumatic stress disorder: evolutionary perspectives of hostage reactions, domestic abuse and the Stockholm syndrome.Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 41(5), 377-384.Karan, A., & Hansen, N. (2018). Does the Stockholm Syndrome affect female sex workers? The case for a “Sonagachi Syndrome”.BMC international health and human rights, 18(1), 1-3.Namnyak, M., Tufton, N., Szekely, R., Toal, M., Worboys, S., & Sampson, E. L. (2008). ‘Stockholm syndrome’: psychiatric diagnosis or urban myth?. 7(1), 4-11.
Bachand, C., & Djak, N. (2018). Stockholm syndrome in athletics: A Paradox.Children Australia, 43(3), 175-180.
Cantor, C., & Price, J. (2007). Traumatic entrapment, appeasement and complex post-traumatic stress disorder: evolutionary perspectives of hostage reactions, domestic abuse and the Stockholm syndrome.Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 41(5), 377-384.
Karan, A., & Hansen, N. (2018). Does the Stockholm Syndrome affect female sex workers? The case for a “Sonagachi Syndrome”.BMC international health and human rights, 18(1), 1-3.
Namnyak, M., Tufton, N., Szekely, R., Toal, M., Worboys, S., & Sampson, E. L. (2008). ‘Stockholm syndrome’: psychiatric diagnosis or urban myth?. 7(1), 4-11.
Saul McLeod, PhD
BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester
Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.
Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc
BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education
Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.
