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Background
Stanley Milgram, a psychologist at Yale University, carried out one of the most famous studies of obedience in psychology.
He conducted an experiment focusing on the conflict between obedience to authority and personal conscience.
The experiments began in July 1961, a year after the trial of Adolf Eichmann in Jerusalem. Milgram devised the experiment to answer the question:
Could it be that Eichmann and his million accomplices in the Holocaust were just following orders? Could we call them all accomplices?” (Milgram, 1974).
Milgram (1963) wanted to investigate whether Germans were particularly obedient to authority figures, as this was a common explanation for the Nazi killings in World War II.
Milgram’s Experiment (1963)
Aim
The study was designed to measure how far participants would go in obeying an authority figure who instructed them to perform acts that conflicted with their personal conscience.
Milgram also investigated the conditions under which people obey or disobey authority and the psychological mechanisms (reasons) behind obedience and disobedience.
Sample
Procedure
The procedure involved pairing participants with a confederate (Mr. Wallace), assigning roles through a rigged draw, and setting up a scenario where the participant (always the teacher) was instructed to administer electric shocks to the confederate (learner) for incorrect answers to a memory task.
Before ‘drawing lots’ to decide who became the teacher and who became the learner Milgram told the participants about the effects of punishment on learning:
We know very little about the effects of punishment on learning. This is because almost no scientific studies have been conducted (on human beings). We don’t know how much punishment is best for learning/whether it is beneficial to learning; We also don’t know how much difference it makes as to who is giving the punishment: So in this study, we are bringing together people from different occupations (to test this out); We want to know what effect different people have on each other as teachers and learners.
The learner (Mr. Wallace) was taken into a room and strapped into an electric chair apparatus.
The teacher (real participant) and experimenter (a confederate called Mr. William) went into a separate room next door that contained an electric shock generator.
Two rooms in the Yale Interaction Laboratory were used – one for the learner (with an eclectic chair) and another for the teacher and experimenter with an electric shock generator.
The ‘Learning Task’
The teacher real participant) was given a preliminary series of 10 words to read to the learner (confederate), with 7 predetermined wrong answers, reaching 105 volts.
After the practice round, a second list was given, and the teacher was told to repeat the procedure until all word pairs were learned correctly.
The participant (teacher) read a second list of word pairs to the learner. The participant then read one word from each pair and provided four possible options for the matching word.
This task served as the pretext for administering shocks, allowing the experimenters to study obedience to authority in a controlled setting.
Each incorrect answer resulted in a shock, while a correct answer moved the process to the next word.
Fake Shock Generator
The shocks in Stanley Milgram’s obedience experiments were not real. The “learners” were actors who were part of the experiment and did not actually receive any shocks.
However, the “teachers” (the real participants of the study) believed the shocks were real, which was crucial for the experiment to measure obedience to authority figures even when it involved causing harm to others.
The participant was given a mild electric shock of 45v to the wrist to convince them that the shocks were genuine. Milgram watched through a one-way mirror.
Verbal designations were provided for groups of four voltage levels: 15 volts (Slight Shock) to 375 volts (Danger: Severe Shock) and the last two switches to 450 volts were labeled “XXX”.
Learner (confederate)
The learner (Mr. Wallace) was a confederate (stooge) who pretended to be a real participant. He was 47 years old, mild-minded, Irish-American, and was an accountant in real life.
The learner was taken into a separate room and strapped into an electric chair apparatus. He had electrodes attached to his wrist with paste (to avoid blistering). The experimenter explained that the straps were to prevent excessive movement.
The “learner” (Mr. Wallace) was strapped to a chair with electrodes.
The learner’s responses were predetermined, with a schedule of approximately three wrong answers to one correct answer. This standardized protocal was used for all 40 participants.
The learner continued to provide answers (mostly incorrect) up until the 300v shock, and makes noises of pain when he receives a shock.
The learner stops responding to the questions after receiving the 300v shock.
After getting the 315v shock, the pounding is repeated and afterward, no response appears for the questions, and he is not heard from.
Experimenter (confederate authority figure)
Additionally, the experimenter tells the teacher to announce the voltage level before administering each shock.
When the teacher refused to administer a shock, the experimenter (Mr. Williams) instructed a series of standardized orders/prods to ensure they continued.
There were four standardized, scripted prods, and if one was not obeyed, then the experimenter (Mr. Williams) read out the next prod, and so on.
If a prod was unsuccessful or the participant insisted on stopping, the experimenter moved on to the next one, and so on.
The tone was firm but not impolite. The prods were repeated if the participant showed reluctance to continue.
These prods were to be used in order, and begun afresh for each new attempt at defiance (Milgram, 1974, p. 21).
If the final prod was unsuccessful or the participant stopped reading words, the study ended.
There were special prods if physical injury was asked about;
Results
Conclusion
Situational factors affected obedience:
The individual explanation for the behavior of the participants would be that it was something about them as people that caused them to obey, but a more realistic explanation is that the situation they were in influenced them and caused them to behave in the way that they did.
Some aspects of the situation that may have influenced their behavior include the formality of the location, the behavior of the experimenter, and the fact that it was an experiment for which they had volunteered and been paid.
People tend to obey orders from other people if they recognize their authority as morally right and/or legally based. This response to legitimate authority is learned in a variety of situations, for example in the family, school, and workplace.
Milgram summed up in the article “The Perils of Obedience” (Milgram 1974), writing:
“The legal and philosophic aspects of obedience are of enormous import, but they say very little about how most people behave in concrete situations.
Stark authority was pitted against the subjects’ [participants’] strongest moral imperatives against hurting others, and, with the subjects’ [participants’] ears ringing with the screams of the victims, authority won more often than not.
The extreme willingness of adults to go to almost any lengths on the command of an authority constitutes the chief finding of the study and the fact most urgently demanding explanation.”
Milgram’s Agency Theory
Milgram suggested that two things must be in place for a person to enter the agentic state:
In this condition the individual no longer views himself as responsible for his own actions but defines himself as an instrument for carrying out the wishes of others” (Milgram, 1974, p. 134).
For example, when participants were reminded that they had responsibility for their own actions, almost none of them were prepared to obey.
In contrast, many participants who were refusing to go on did so if the experimenter said that he would take responsibility.
According to Milgram (1974, p. 188):
“The behavior revealed in the experiments reported here is normal human behavior but revealed under conditions that show with particular clarity the danger to human survival inherent in our make-up.
And what is it we have seen? Not aggression, for there is no anger, vindictiveness, or hatred in those who shocked the victim….
Something far more dangerous is revealed: the capacity for man to abandon his humanity, indeed, the inevitability that he does so, as he merges his unique personality into larger institutional structures.”
Milgram Experiment Variations
In total, 636 participants were tested in 18 variation studies conducted between 1961 and 1962 at Yale University.
Uniform
In the original baseline study – the experimenter wore a gray lab coat to symbolize his authority (a kind of uniform).
Milgram carried out a variation in which the experimenter was called away because of a phone call right at the start of the procedure.
Change of Location:The Mountain View Facility Study (1963, unpublished)Milgram conducted this variation in a set of offices in a rundown building, claiming it was associated with “Research Associates of Bridgeport” rather than Yale.The lab’s ordinary appearance was designed to test if Yale’s prestige encouraged obedience. Participants were led to believe that a private research firm experimented.
Change of Location:The Mountain View Facility Study (1963, unpublished)
Milgram conducted this variation in a set of offices in a rundown building, claiming it was associated with “Research Associates of Bridgeport” rather than Yale.
The lab’s ordinary appearance was designed to test if Yale’s prestige encouraged obedience. Participants were led to believe that a private research firm experimented.
In this non-university setting, obedience rates dropped to 47.5% compared to 65% in the original Yale experiments. This suggests that the status of location affects obedience.
Private research firms are viewed as less prestigious than certain universities, which affects behavior. It is easier under these conditions to abandon the belief in the experimenter’s essential decency.
The impressive university setting reinforced the experimenter’s authority and conveyed an implicit approval of the research.
Two Teacher ConditionWhen participants could instruct an assistant (confederate) to press the switches, 92.5% shocked to the maximum of 450 volts.Allowing the participant to instruct an assistant to press the shock switches diffused personal responsibility and likely reduced perceptions of causing direct harm.By attributing the actions to the assistant rather than themselves, participants could more easily justify shocking to the maximum 450 volts, reflected in the 92.5% obedience rate.When there is less personal responsibility, obedience increases. This relates to Milgram’s Agency Theory.
Two Teacher Condition
When participants could instruct an assistant (confederate) to press the switches, 92.5% shocked to the maximum of 450 volts.Allowing the participant to instruct an assistant to press the shock switches diffused personal responsibility and likely reduced perceptions of causing direct harm.By attributing the actions to the assistant rather than themselves, participants could more easily justify shocking to the maximum 450 volts, reflected in the 92.5% obedience rate.When there is less personal responsibility, obedience increases. This relates to Milgram’s Agency Theory.
When participants could instruct an assistant (confederate) to press the switches, 92.5% shocked to the maximum of 450 volts.
Allowing the participant to instruct an assistant to press the shock switches diffused personal responsibility and likely reduced perceptions of causing direct harm.
By attributing the actions to the assistant rather than themselves, participants could more easily justify shocking to the maximum 450 volts, reflected in the 92.5% obedience rate.
When there is less personal responsibility, obedience increases. This relates to Milgram’s Agency Theory.
Touch Proximity ConditionThe teacher had to force the learner’s hand down onto a shock plate when the learner refused to participate after 150 volts. Obedience fell to 30%.The Milgram Experiments. Subject in the study (c) Yale University Manuscripts and ArchivesForcing the learner’s hand onto the shock plate after 150 volts physically connected the teacher to the consequences of their actions. This direct tactile feedback increased the teacher’s personal responsibility.No longer shielded from the learner’s reactions, the proximity enabled participants to more clearly perceive the harm they were causing, reducing obedience to 30%. Physical distance and indirect actions in the original setup made it easier to rationalize obeying the experimenter.The participant is no longer buffered/protected from seeing the consequences of their actions.
Touch Proximity ConditionThe teacher had to force the learner’s hand down onto a shock plate when the learner refused to participate after 150 volts. Obedience fell to 30%.The Milgram Experiments. Subject in the study (c) Yale University Manuscripts and ArchivesForcing the learner’s hand onto the shock plate after 150 volts physically connected the teacher to the consequences of their actions. This direct tactile feedback increased the teacher’s personal responsibility.No longer shielded from the learner’s reactions, the proximity enabled participants to more clearly perceive the harm they were causing, reducing obedience to 30%. Physical distance and indirect actions in the original setup made it easier to rationalize obeying the experimenter.
Touch Proximity Condition
The teacher had to force the learner’s hand down onto a shock plate when the learner refused to participate after 150 volts. Obedience fell to 30%.
The Milgram Experiments. Subject in the study (c) Yale University Manuscripts and Archives
Forcing the learner’s hand onto the shock plate after 150 volts physically connected the teacher to the consequences of their actions. This direct tactile feedback increased the teacher’s personal responsibility.
No longer shielded from the learner’s reactions, the proximity enabled participants to more clearly perceive the harm they were causing, reducing obedience to 30%. Physical distance and indirect actions in the original setup made it easier to rationalize obeying the experimenter.
The participant is no longer buffered/protected from seeing the consequences of their actions.
Social Support Condition
Two other participants (confederates) were also teachers but refused to obey. Confederate 1 stopped at 150 volts, and Confederate 2 stopped at 210 volts.
Their disobedience provided social proof that it was acceptable to disobey. This modeling of defiance lowered obedience to only 10% compared to 65% without such social support. It demonstrated that social modeling can validate challenging authority.
The presence of others who are seen to disobey the authority figure reduces the level of obedience to 10%.
Absent Experimenter Condition
The physical absence of the authority figure enabled participants to act more freely on their own moral inclinations rather than the experimenter’s commands. This highlighted the role of an authority’s direct presence in influencing behavior.
A key reason the obedience studies fascinate people is Milgram presented them as a scientific experiment, contrasting himself as an “empirically grounded scientist” compared to philosophers. He claimed he systematically varied factors to alter obedience rates.
However, recent scholarship using archival records shows Milgram’s account of standardizing the procedure was misleading. For example, he published a list of standardized prods the experimenter used when participants questioned continuing. Milgram said these were delivered uniformly in a firm but polite tone.
Analyzing audiotapes, Gibson (2013) found considerable variation from the published protocol – the prods differed across trials. The point is not that Milgram did poor science, but that the archival materials reveal the limitations of the textbook account of his “standardized” procedure.
The qualitative data like participant feedback, Milgram’s notes, and researchers’ actions provide a fuller, messier picture than the obedience studies’ “official” story. For psychology students, this shows how scientific reporting can polish findings in a way that strays from the less tidy reality.
Critical Evaluation
Inaccurate description of the prod methodology:
A key reason obedience studies fascinate people is Milgram (1974) presented them as a scientific experiment, contrasting himself as an “empirically grounded scientist” compared to philosophers. He claimed he systematically varied factors to alter obedience rates.
However, recent scholarship using archival records shows Milgram’s account of standardizing the procedure was misleading. For example, he published a list of standardized prods the experimenter used when participants questioned continuing. Milgram said these were delivered uniformly in a firm but polite tone (Gibson, 2013; Perry, 2013; Russell, 2010).
Perry’s (2013) archival research revealed another discrepancy between Milgram’s published account and the actual events. Milgram claimed standardized prods were used when participants resisted, but Perry’s audiotape analysis showed the experimenter often improvised more coercive prods beyond the supposed script.
This off-script prodding varied between experiments and participants, and was especially prevalent with female participants where no gender obedience difference was found – suggesting the improvisation influenced results. Gibson (2013) and Russell (2009) corroborated the experimenter’s departures from the supposed fixed prods.
Prods were often combined or modified rather than used verbatim as published.
This raises significant issues around experimenter bias influencing results, lack of standardization compromising validity, and ethical problems with Milgram misrepresenting procedures.
Milgram’s experiment lacked external validity:
The Milgram studies were conducted in laboratory-type conditions, and we must ask if this tells us much about real-life situations.
We obey in a variety of real-life situations that are far more subtle than instructions to give people electric shocks, and it would be interesting to see what factors operate in everyday obedience. The sort of situation Milgram investigated would be more suited to a military context.
Orne and Holland (1968) accused Milgram’s study of lacking ‘experimental realism,”’ i.e.,” participants might not have believed the experimental set-up they found themselves in and knew the learner wasn’t receiving electric shocks.
“It’s more truthful to say that only half of the people who undertook the experiment fully believed it was real, and of those two-thirds disobeyed the experimenter,” observes Perry (p. 139).
Milgram’s sample was biased:
Yet a total of 636 participants were tested in 18 separate experiments across the New Haven area, which was seen as being reasonably representative of a typical American town.
Milgram’s findings have been replicated in a variety of cultures and most lead to the same conclusions as Milgram’s original study and in some cases see higher obedience rates.
However, Smith and Bond (1998) point out that with the exception of Jordan (Shanab & Yahya, 1978), the majority of these studies have been conducted in industrialized Western cultures, and we should be cautious before we conclude that a universal trait of social behavior has been identified.
Selective reporting of experimental findings:
Perry (2013) found Milgram omitted findings from some obedience experiments he conducted, reporting only results supporting his conclusions. A key omission was the Relationship condition (conducted in 1962 but unpublished), where participant pairs were relatives or close acquaintances.
When the learner protested being shocked, most teachers disobeyed, contradicting Milgram’s emphasis on obedience to authority.
Perry argued Milgram likely did not publish this 85% disobedience rate because it undermined his narrative and would be difficult to defend ethically since the teacher and learner knew each other closely.
Milgram’s selective reporting biased interpretations of his findings. His failure to publish all his experiments raises issues around researchers’ ethical obligation to completely and responsibly report their results, not just those fitting their expectations.
Unreported analysis of participants’ skepticism and its impact on their behavior:
Perry (2013) found archival evidence that many participants expressed doubt about the experiment’s setup, impacting their behavior. This supports Orne and Holland’s (1968) criticism that Milgram overlooked participants’ perceptions.
Obedient participants were more skeptical that the learner was harmed. This selective reporting biased interpretations. Additional unreported findings further challenge Milgram’s conclusions.
This highlights issues around thoroughly and responsibly reporting all results, not just those fitting expectations. It shows how archival evidence makes Milgram’s study a contentious classic with questionable methods and conclusions.
Ethical Issues
What are the potential ethical concerns associated with Milgram’s research on obedience?
While not a “contribution to psychology” in the traditional sense, Milgram’s obedience experiments sparked significant debate about the ethics of psychological research.
Consent
Baumrind (1964) criticized the ethics of Milgram’s research as participants were prevented from giving their informed consent to take part in the study.
Participants assumed the experiment was benign and expected to be treated with dignity.
As a result of studies like Milgram’s, the APA and BPS now require researchers to give participants more information before they agree to take part in a study.
Deception
The participants actually believed they were shocking a real person and were unaware the learner was a confederate of Milgram’s.
However, Milgram argued that “illusion is used when necessary in order to set the stage for the revelation of certain difficult-to-get-at-truths.”
Milgram also interviewed participants afterward to find out the effect of the deception. Apparently, 83.7% said that they were “glad to be in the experiment,” and 1.3% said that they wished they had not been involved.
Protection of participants
Participants were exposed to extremely stressful situations that may have the potential to cause psychological harm. Many of the participants were visibly distressed (Baumrind, 1964).
Signs of tension included trembling, sweating, stuttering, laughing nervously, biting lips and digging fingernails into palms of hands. Three participants had uncontrollable seizures, and many pleaded to be allowed to stop the experiment.
Milgram described a businessman reduced to a “twitching stuttering wreck” (1963, p. 377),
In his defense, Milgram argued that these effects were only short-term. Once the participants were debriefed (and could see the confederate was OK), their stress levels decreased.
“At no point,” Milgram (1964) stated, “were subjects exposed to danger and at no point did they run the risk of injurious effects resulting from participation” (p. 849).
To defend himself against criticisms about the ethics of his obedience research, Milgram cited follow-up survey data showing that 84% of participants said they were glad they had taken part in the study.
Milgram used this to claim that the study caused no serious or lasting harm, since most participants retrospectively did not regret their involvement.
Yet archival accounts show many participants endured lasting distress, even trauma, refuting Milgram’s insistence the study caused only fleeting “excitement.” By not debriefing all, Milgram misled participants about the true risks involved (Perry, 2013).
Debrief
However, Milgram did debrief the participants fully after the experiment and also followed up after a period of time to ensure that they came to no harm.
Milgram debriefed all his participants straight after the experiment and disclosed the true nature of the experiment.
Participants were assured that their behavior was common, and Milgram also followed the sample up a year later and found no signs of any long-term psychological harm.
The majority of the participants (83.7%) said that they were pleased that they had participated, and 74% hadlearned something of personal importance.
Perry’s (2013) archival research found Milgram misrepresented debriefing – around 600 participants were not properly debriefed soon after the study, contrary to his claims. Many only learned no real shocks occurred when reading a mailed study report months later, which some may have not received.
Milgram likely misreported debriefing details to protect his credibility and enable future obedience research. This raises issues around properly informing and debriefing participants that connect to APA ethics codes developed partly in response to Milgram’s study.
Right to Withdrawal
The British Psychological Society (BPS) states that researchers should make it plain to participants that they are free to withdraw at any time (regardless of payment).
When expressing doubts, the experimenter assured them that all was well. Trusting Yale scientists, many took the experimenter at his word that “no permanent tissue damage” would occur, and continued administering shocks despite reservations.
Did Milgram give participants an opportunity to withdraw? The experimenter gave four verbal prods which mostly discouraged withdrawal from the experiment:
Milgram argued that they were justified as the study was about obedience, so orders were necessary.
Milgram pointed out that although the right to withdraw was made partially difficult, it was possible as 35% of participants had chosen to withdraw.
Replications
Direct replications have not been possible due to currentethical standards.
However, several researchers have conducted partial replications and variations that aim to reproduce some aspects of Milgram’s methods ethically.
As 79% of Milgram’s participants who went past 150 volts continued to the maximum 450 volts, Burger (2009) argued that 150 volts provided a reasonable estimate for obedience levels. He found 70% of participants continued to 150 volts, compared to 82.5% in Milgram’s comparable condition.
Blass correlated obedience rates from replication studies between 1963 and 1985 and found no relationship between year and obedience level. He concluded that obedience rates have not systematically changed, providing evidence against the idea of “enlightenment effects”.
Some variations have explored the role of gender. Milgram found equal rates of obedience for male and female participants. Reviews have found most replications also show no gender difference, with a couple of exceptions (Blass, 1999). For example, Kilham and Mann (1974) found lower obedience in female participants.
Partial replications have also examined situational factors. Having another person model defiance reduced obedience compared to a solo participant in one study, but did not eliminate it (Burger, 2009).
The authority figure’s perceived expertise seems to be an influential factor (Blass, 1999). Replications have supported Milgram’s observation that stepwise increases in demands promote obedience.
In sum, the partial replications confirm Milgram’s degree of obedience. Though ethical constraints prevent full reproductions, the key elements of his procedure seem to consistently elicit high levels of compliance across studies, samples, and eras. The replications continue to highlight the power of situational pressures to yield obedience.
Milgram (1963) Audio Clips
Below you can also hear some of theaudio clipstaken from the video that was made of the experiment. Just click on the clips below.
Clip 1: This is a long audio clip of the 3rd participant administering shocks to the confederate. You can hear the confederate’s pleas to be released and the experimenter’s instructions to continue.
Clip 2: A short clip of the confederate refusing to continue the experiment.
Clip 3: The confederate begins to complain of heart trouble.
Clip 4: Listen to the confederate get a shock: “Let me out of here. Let me out, let me out, let me out” And so on!
Clip 5: The experimenter tells the participant that they must continue.
FAQs
Why was the Milgram experiment so controversial?The Milgram experiment was controversial because it revealed people’s willingness to obey authority figures even when causing harm to others, raising ethical concerns about the psychological distress inflicted upon participants and the deception involved in the study.
Why was the Milgram experiment so controversial?
The Milgram experiment was controversial because it revealed people’s willingness to obey authority figures even when causing harm to others, raising ethical concerns about the psychological distress inflicted upon participants and the deception involved in the study.
Would Milgram’s experiment be allowed today?Milgram’s experiment would likely not be allowed today in its original form, as it violates modernethical guidelinesfor research involving human participants, particularly regarding informed consent, deception, and protection from psychological harm.
Would Milgram’s experiment be allowed today?
Milgram’s experiment would likely not be allowed today in its original form, as it violates modernethical guidelinesfor research involving human participants, particularly regarding informed consent, deception, and protection from psychological harm.
Did anyone refuse the Milgram experiment?Yes, in the Milgram experiment, some participants refused to continue administering shocks, demonstrating individual variation in obedience to authority figures. In the original Milgram experiment, approximately 35% of participants refused to administer the highest shock level of 450 volts, while 65% obeyed and delivered the 450-volt shock.
Did anyone refuse the Milgram experiment?
Yes, in the Milgram experiment, some participants refused to continue administering shocks, demonstrating individual variation in obedience to authority figures. In the original Milgram experiment, approximately 35% of participants refused to administer the highest shock level of 450 volts, while 65% obeyed and delivered the 450-volt shock.
How can Milgram’s study be applied to real life?
Were all participants in Milgram’s experiments male?Yes, in the original Milgram experiment conducted in 1961, all participants were male, limiting the generalizability of the findings to women and diverse populations.
Were all participants in Milgram’s experiments male?
Yes, in the original Milgram experiment conducted in 1961, all participants were male, limiting the generalizability of the findings to women and diverse populations.
Why was the Milgram experiment unethical?The Milgram experiment was considered unethical because participants were deceived about the true nature of the study and subjected to severe emotional distress. They believed they were causing harm to another person under the instruction of authority.Additionally, participants were not given the right to withdraw freely and were subjected to intense pressure to continue. The psychological harm and lack of informed consent violates modern ethical guidelines for research.
Why was the Milgram experiment unethical?
The Milgram experiment was considered unethical because participants were deceived about the true nature of the study and subjected to severe emotional distress. They believed they were causing harm to another person under the instruction of authority.Additionally, participants were not given the right to withdraw freely and were subjected to intense pressure to continue. The psychological harm and lack of informed consent violates modern ethical guidelines for research.
The Milgram experiment was considered unethical because participants were deceived about the true nature of the study and subjected to severe emotional distress. They believed they were causing harm to another person under the instruction of authority.
Additionally, participants were not given the right to withdraw freely and were subjected to intense pressure to continue. The psychological harm and lack of informed consent violates modern ethical guidelines for research.
References
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Blass, T. (1999). The Milgram paradigm after 35 years: Some things we now know about obedience to authority 1.Journal of Applied Social Psychology,29(5), 955-978.
Brannigan, A., Nicholson, I., & Cherry, F. (2015). Introduction to the special issue: Unplugging the Milgram machine.Theory & Psychology,25(5), 551-563.
Burger, J. M. (2009). Replicating Milgram: Would people still obey today?American Psychologist, 64, 1–11.
Elms, A. C. (2009). Obedience lite.American Psychologist, 64(1), 32–36.
Gibson, S. (2013). Milgram’s obedience experiments: A rhetorical analysis.British Journal of Social Psychology, 52,290–309.
Gibson, S. (2017). Developing psychology’s archival sensibilities: Revisiting Milgram’s obedience’ experiments.Qualitative Psychology,4(1), 73.
Griggs, R. A., Blyler, J., & Jackson, S. L. (2020). Using research ethics as a springboard for teaching Milgram’s obedience study as a contentious classic.Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Psychology,6(4), 350.
Haslam, S. A., & Reicher, S. D. (2018). A truth that does not always speak its name: How Hollander and Turowetz’s findings confirm and extend the engaged followership analysis of harm-doing in the Milgram paradigm.British Journal of Social Psychology, 57,292–300.
Haslam, S. A., Reicher, S. D., & Birney, M. E. (2016). Questioning authority: New perspectives on Milgram’s ‘obedience’ research and its implications for intergroup relations.Current Opinion in Psychology, 11, 6–9.
Haslam, S. A., Reicher, S. D., Birney, M. E., Millard, K., & McDonald, R. (2015). ‘Happy to have been of service’: The Yale archive as a window into the engaged followership of participants in Milgram’s ‘obedience’ experiment.British Journal of Social Psychology, 54, 55–83.
Kaplan, D. E. (1996). The Stanley Milgram papers: A case study on appraisal of and access to confidential data files.American Archivist, 59, 288–297.
Kaposi, D. (2022). The second wave of critical engagement with Stanley Milgram’s ‘obedience to authority’experiments: What did we learn?.Social and Personality Psychology Compass,16(6), e12667.
Kilham, W., & Mann, L. (1974). Level of destructive obedience as a function of transmitter and executant roles in the Milgram obedience paradigm.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 29(5), 696–702.
Milgram, S. (1963).Behavioral study of obedience.Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67, 371-378.
Milgram, S. (1964). Issues in the study of obedience: A reply to Baumrind.American Psychologist,19, 848–852.
Milgram, S. (1965).Some conditions of obedience and disobedience to authority.Human Relations, 18(1), 57-76.
Milgram, S. (1974).Obedience to authority: An experimental view. Harpercollins.
Miller, A. G. (2009). Reflections on” Replicating Milgram”(Burger, 2009),American Psychologist,64(1):20-27
Nicholson, I. (2011). “Torture at Yale”: Experimental subjects, laboratory torment and the “rehabilitation” of Milgram’s “obedience to authority”.Theory & Psychology, 21, 737–761.
Nicholson, I. (2015). The normalization of torment: Producing and managing anguish in Milgram’s “obedience” laboratory.Theory & Psychology, 25, 639–656.
Orne, M. T., & Holland, C. H. (1968). On the ecological validity of laboratory deceptions.International Journal of Psychiatry, 6(4), 282-293.
Orne, M. T., & Holland, C. C. (1968). Some conditions of obedience and disobedience to authority.On the ecological validity of laboratory deceptions.International Journal of Psychiatry, 6, 282–293.
Perry, G. (2013).Behind the shock machine: The untold story of the notorious Milgram psychologyexperiments. New York, NY: The New Press.
Reicher, S., Haslam, A., & Miller, A. (Eds.). (2014). Milgram at 50: Exploring the enduring relevance of psychology’s most famous studies [Special issue].Journal of Social Issues, 70(3), 393–602
Russell, N. (2014). Stanley Milgram’s obedience to authority “relationship condition”: Somemethodological and theoretical implications.Social Sciences, 3,194–214
Shanab, M. E., & Yahya, K. A. (1978). A cross-cultural study of obedience.Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society.
Smith, P. B., & Bond, M. H. (1998).Social psychology across cultures (2nd Edition). Prentice Hall.
Further Reading
Learning Check
Which is true regarding the Milgram obedience study?
Answers: Items 3, 8, 9, and 11 are the false statements.
Short Answer Questions
Group Activity
Gather in groups of three or four to discuss answers to the short answer questions above.
For question 2, review the different scenarios you each came up with. Then brainstorm on how these situations could be flipped.
For question 2, discuss how an authority figure could instead empower those below them in the examples your groupmates provide.
Essay Topic
Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc
BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education
Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.
Saul McLeod, PhD
BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester
Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.
