Sensitive responsivenessis the caregiver’s ability to notice, accurately interpret, and promptly respond to an infant’s signals in an appropriate manner. It involves being attuned to the child’s needs and providing consistent, warm, and contingent care that promotes secure attachment and healthy development.
Key Points
Rationale
The rationale for this study is rooted in the limitations ofattachment theoryresearch, which has primarily focused on WEIRD (Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic) populations (Henrich et al., 2010; Keller et al., 2018).
Sensitive responsiveness refers to acaregiver’s ability to accurately interpret and promptly respond to an infant’s signals in a warm, appropriate manner(Ainsworth et al., 1978).
Numerous studies have linked sensitive responsiveness to positive outcomes such assecure attachment,better emotion regulation, and improved cognitive development (Bernier et al., 2012; Leerkes et al., 2009).
However, the overwhelming majority of attachment research has been conducted in WEIRD societies, which represent only a small portion of human cultural diversity (Henrich et al., 2010).
This narrow focus has led to a limited understanding of caregiving practices that may support healthy child development.
Critics argue that the emphasis on dyadic, mother-infant relationships and sensitive responsiveness reflects Western cultural values and overlooks the importance of multiple caregiving (Keller et al., 2018; Vicedo, 2017).
In many non-Western cultures, infants receive substantial care from fathers, grandparents, siblings, and other community members, a practice known as allomothering (Hrdy, 2009). The impact of these diverse caregiving arrangements on child development remains understudied.
To address these gaps, researchers have turned to studying hunter-gatherer populations, whose way of life more closely resembles that of ancestral humans (Konner, 2005).
Evolutionary anthropologists argue that the caregiving practices observed in contemporary hunter-gatherer societies may provide insight into the types of care human infants are adapted to receive (Chaudhary & Swanepoel, 2023).
By examining childcare among the Mbendjele, a hunter-gatherer population in the Republic of Congo, this study aims to broaden our understanding of sensitive responsiveness, caregiver-child closeness, and the role of allomothers in child development.
The findings can help inform attachment theory and provide a more culturally inclusive perspective on optimal caregiving practices.
Moreover, this research has important implications for child well-being in diverse contexts. Understanding the range of caregiving practices that support healthy development can guide interventions and policies promoting positive outcomes for children across cultures.
Method
The researchers conducted focal followobservationsof 18 Mbendjele children aged 0-4 years old across three camps.
Each child was observed for 12 daylight hours, recording data on crying, alone time, caregiving behaviors, and caregiver identity. Genealogical interviews were conducted to determine genetic relatedness between children and caregivers.
Sample
The sample included 18 Mbendjele children (10 male, 8 female) aged 0-4 years old from three camps in the Republic of Congo. The Mbendjele are mobile hunter-gatherers with limited market integration.
Statistical Measures
Descriptive statistics were calculated for variables such as crying duration, response rates, time in contact/care, and allomaternal contribution.
Chi-squareand proportion tests examined age-related differences in crying response. Regressions explored associations between age and care variables. Permutation tests compared characteristics of allomothers.
Results
Responding to Crying
Closeness and Close Care
Allomaternal Contribution
Caregiver Sharing
Network Concentration
Insight
The study investigated three aspects of caregiving among the Mbendjele hunter-gatherers: responses to distress, closeness and close care, and the structure of allomothering networks.
Mbendjele children experienced exceptionally high levels of closeness and close care, spending extensive time in physical contact, receiving care, and being held, with very little time spent alone.
Allomothers, or caregivers other than the biological parents, provided a substantial 40-50% of total care across all domains examined.
While the size of allomaternal networks varied, care within these networks was highly concentrated, with children having a few core caregivers responsible for most of their care. Some sharing of allomothers was observed, but typically, a child had several allomothers who directed most of their allomaternal effort toward that specific child.
The authors emphasize that contemporary hunter-gatherers, while not “living fossils,” occupy a subsistence mode that overlaps with pre-Neolithic populations, making their childcare practices potentially more representative of those practiced during human evolutionary history. However, they caution against losing sight of the fact that these are modern populations, not relics of the past.
The study’s findings offer insights into the levels of responsiveness and closeness children may be evolutionarily primed to expect. The high responsiveness observed among the Mbendjele contrasts with the lower levels in many Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic (WEIRD) societies.
The high levels of closeness and contact among the Mbendjele also differ from practices in WEIRD populations. The authors propose that reducing this discrepancy could offer numerous psychological benefits, as studies have shown increased contact to enhance maternal sensitivity, secure attachment, brain development, and learning abilities while reducing maternal depressive symptoms.
The study highlights the importance of allomaternal support in facilitating the high levels of responsiveness and closeness observed.
The composition of allomaternal networks was similar across age groups, with children having more related than unrelated allomothers and fewer post-reproductive allomothers compared to subadult and adult allomothers. The prevalence of subadult allomothers is a notable difference compared to WEIRD children’s caregiver networks.
Future research could directly examine impacts on child psychology and test whether increasing responsiveness, contact, and allomaternal support in WEIRD contexts enhances wellbeing.
Strengths
Limitations
Implications:
This study challenges the Western model of childcare centered on the mother-child relationship. It suggests children may be primed to expect far higher levels of responsiveness, physical closeness, and allomaternal support than is typical in WEIRD societies.
Policymakers should consider increasing access to affordable, high-quality non-parental care with high caregiver-child ratios and consistent, responsive caregivers.
However, completely replicating hunter-gatherer practices is likely unrealistic. Future interventions could test whether increasing components of this hunter-gatherer caregiving style enhances child well-being in WEIRD contexts.
References
Primary reference
Chaudhary, N., Salali, G. D., & Swanepoel, A. (2024). Sensitive responsiveness and multiple caregiving networks among Mbendjele BaYaka hunter-gatherers: Potential implications for psychological development and well-being.Developmental Psychology, 60(3), 422–440.https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001601
Other references
Henrich, J., Heine, S. J., & Norenzayan, A. (2010). The weirdest people in the world? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 33(2–3), 61–83. https://doi.org/10 .1017/S0140525X0999152X
Keller, H., Bard, K., Morelli, G., Chaudhary, N., Vicedo, M., Rosabal-Coto, M., Scheidecker, G., Murray, M., & Gottlieb, A. (2018). The myth of universal sensitive responsiveness: Comment on Mesman et al. (2017). Child Development, 89(5), 1921–1928. https://doi.org/10.1111/CDEV.13031
Vicedo, M. (2017). Putting attachment in its place: Disciplinary and cultural contexts. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 14(6), 684–699. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2017.1289838
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Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc
BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education
Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.
Saul McLeod, PhD
BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester
Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.
