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Learning Approach: Behaviorism
Assumptions(AO1)
First, the dogs were presented with the food, and they salivated. The food was theunconditioned stimulus,and salivation was anunconditioned(innate)response.
ThenPavlovsounded the bell (neutral stimulus) before giving the food. After a fewpairings,the dogs salivated when they heard the bell, even when no food was given. The bell had become theconditioned stimulus,and salivation had become theconditioned response.
Skinnerargued that learning is anactiveprocess. When humans and animals act on and in their environment,consequencesfollow these behaviors. If the consequences are pleasant, they repeat the behavior, but if the consequences are unpleasant, they do not repeat the behavior.
The Skinner Box (1953)(AO1)
A hungry rat was placed in a cage. Every time he activated the lever, a food pellet fell into the food dispenser (positive reinforcement). The rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a few times being put in the box
This suggests that positive reinforcement increases the likelihood of the behavior being repeated.
In another experiment, a rat was placed in a cage in which they were subjected to an uncomfortable electrical current. As he moved around the cage the rat hit the lever, this immediately switched off the electrical current (negative reinforcement). The rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a few times being put in the box.
This suggests that negative reinforcement increases the likelihood of the behavior being repeated.
ApplicationsAO3
EvaluationAO3
Learning Approach: Social Learning Theory(AO1)
Banduraagreed with the behaviorists that behavior is learned through experience. However, he proposed a different mechanism than conditioning. He argued that we learn throughobservation and imitation of others’ behavior.
This theory focuses not only on the behavior itself but also on the mental processes involved in learning, so it is not a pure behaviorist theory.
Mediational processes are cognitive factors that influence learning and come between stimulus and response. This includes attention, retention, motor reproduction, and motivation.
Stages of the Social Learning Theory(AO1)
Imitation is more likely to occur if the model (the person who performs the behavior) is positively reinforced. This is called vicarious reinforcement.
Imitation is also more likely if we identify with the model. We see them as sharing some characteristics with us i.e., similar age, gender, and social status as we identify with them.
The Bobo doll study – Bandura et al. (1961)AO1
Method
It was alab experiment.
Sample: American children, 36 boys and 36 girls aged between 3-6 years old.
Then the children were taken to a room with some attractive toys but were told not to play with the toys (aggression arousal).
Then the children were taken individually to a room containing a bobo doll, non-aggressive toys like pencils and plastic farm animals, and aggressive toys like a hammer and a pistol.
Results
Conclusion
This supports SLT as it shows that children imitate the behavior of role models even if the behavior is aggressive.
Bandura and Walters (1963)(AO1)
The bobo doll experiment was repeated, but this time the three groups were exposed to an aggressive model and saw different consequences for the model:
This shows that imitation is more likely to occur when the model is positively reinforced, demonstrating the importance of vicarious reinforcement.
Applications(AO1)
This theory is used to explain the influence of the media on behavior. This has been used in court in the case of Jamie Bulger’s murder(1990).
Issues and debates (Behaviorism)AO3
Free will Vs. determinismStrong determinism of the behavioral approach as all behavior is learned from our environment through classical and operant conditioning. We are the sum total of our previous conditioning.Softer determinismof the social learning approach theory recognizes an element of choice as to whether we imitate a behavior.
Free will Vs. determinism
Strong determinism of the behavioral approach as all behavior is learned from our environment through classical and operant conditioning. We are the sum total of our previous conditioning.Softer determinismof the social learning approach theory recognizes an element of choice as to whether we imitate a behavior.
Strong determinism of the behavioral approach as all behavior is learned from our environment through classical and operant conditioning. We are the sum total of our previous conditioning.
Softer determinismof the social learning approach theory recognizes an element of choice as to whether we imitate a behavior.
Nature Vs. nurtureBehaviorism is very much on the nurture side of the debate as it argues that our behavior is learned from the environment.The social learning theory is also on the nurture side because it argues that we learn our behavior from role models in our environment.The behaviorist approach proposes that apart from a few innate reflexes and the capacity for learning, all complex behavior is learned from the environment.
Nature Vs. nurture
Behaviorism is very much on the nurture side of the debate as it argues that our behavior is learned from the environment.The social learning theory is also on the nurture side because it argues that we learn our behavior from role models in our environment.The behaviorist approach proposes that apart from a few innate reflexes and the capacity for learning, all complex behavior is learned from the environment.
Behaviorism is very much on the nurture side of the debate as it argues that our behavior is learned from the environment.
The social learning theory is also on the nurture side because it argues that we learn our behavior from role models in our environment.
The behaviorist approach proposes that apart from a few innate reflexes and the capacity for learning, all complex behavior is learned from the environment.
Holism Vs. reductionismThe behaviorist approach and social learning are reductionist; they isolate parts of complex behaviors to study.Behaviorists take the view that all behavior, no matter how complex, can be broken down into the fundamental processes of conditioning.
Holism Vs. reductionism
The behaviorist approach and social learning are reductionist; they isolate parts of complex behaviors to study.Behaviorists take the view that all behavior, no matter how complex, can be broken down into the fundamental processes of conditioning.
The behaviorist approach and social learning are reductionist; they isolate parts of complex behaviors to study.
Behaviorists take the view that all behavior, no matter how complex, can be broken down into the fundamental processes of conditioning.
Idiographic Vs. nomothetic
However, it does account for individual differences and explains them in terms of differences in the history of conditioning.
Are the research methods used scientific?The behaviorist approach uses lab experiments that are highly controlled; therefore, they are replicable. Furthermore, it measures observable behaviors; therefore, no interpretations are required, and therefore the data is objective.However, behaviorists use animal experiments as it assumes that humans learn in the same way as animals.
Are the research methods used scientific?
The behaviorist approach uses lab experiments that are highly controlled; therefore, they are replicable. Furthermore, it measures observable behaviors; therefore, no interpretations are required, and therefore the data is objective.However, behaviorists use animal experiments as it assumes that humans learn in the same way as animals.
The behaviorist approach uses lab experiments that are highly controlled; therefore, they are replicable. Furthermore, it measures observable behaviors; therefore, no interpretations are required, and therefore the data is objective.
However, behaviorists use animal experiments as it assumes that humans learn in the same way as animals.
Cognitive Approach
The cognitive approach is focused on how our mental processes affect our behavior. It argues that internal mental processes (operations of the mind, e.g., perception of memory that mediates between stimulus and response) should be studied scientifically.
Based on this computer analogy, cognitive psychology is interested in how the brain inputs, stores, and retrieves information.
This has led to models which show information flowing through the cognitive system, such as the multi-store model of memory.
The role of schemas(AO1)
A schema is a “packet of information” or cognitive framework that helps usorganize and interpret information. They are based on our previous experience.
However, it can also lead todistortionof this information as we select and interpret environmental stimuli using schemas that might not be relevant. This could be the cause of inaccuracies in areas such as eyewitness testimony. It can also explain some errors we make when perceiving optical illusions.
The emergence of neuroscience(AO1)
Cognitive neuroscienceis the scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes, done through the use of brain scanning techniques such as fMRI.
Neuroscience aims to find out howbrain structuresinfluence the way we process information and map mental cognitive functions to specific areas of the brain. This is done using brain imaging techniques such as fMRI and PET scans.
Examples of brain mapping: Braver et al. (1997) found that when their participants were performing activities involving the central executive while being scanned, the prefrontal cortex showed greater activity. This suggests that the central executive is situated in the prefrontal cortex.
Laboratory experiments: These are the preferred method of investigation of the cognitive approach i.e. Loftus and Palmer (1974) –Car Crash Study. In these experiments, the extraneous variables are tightly controlled so they can be replicated, but they lack ecological validity as they take place in artificial environments, and the tasks are also artificial.
Case studies: These are used to study rare conditions which provide insight into the working of some mental processes, i.e., Clive Wearing, HM.
Applications(AO3)
Evaluation(AO3)
Issues and debates (Cognitive)AO3
On the other hand, the therapy derived from the approach (CBT) argues that we can change the way we think.
Holism Vs. reductionismThe cognitive approach tends to be reductionist as when studying a variable; it isolates processes such as memory from other cognitive processes. However, in our normal life, we would use many cognitive processes simultaneously, so it lacks validity.
The cognitive approach tends to be reductionist as when studying a variable; it isolates processes such as memory from other cognitive processes. However, in our normal life, we would use many cognitive processes simultaneously, so it lacks validity.
Idiographic Vs. nomotheticIt is a nomothetic approach as it focuses on establishing theories oninformation processingthat apply to all people.
It is a nomothetic approach as it focuses on establishing theories oninformation processingthat apply to all people.
Are the research methods used scientific?The cognitive approach uses lab experiments that are highly controlled; therefore, they are replicable. However, it measures non-observable behaviors; therefore, it could be argued that it is not as scientific as the behaviorist approach.
The cognitive approach uses lab experiments that are highly controlled; therefore, they are replicable. However, it measures non-observable behaviors; therefore, it could be argued that it is not as scientific as the behaviorist approach.
Biological Approach
Genetic factors(AO1)
The influence of genes: Heredity is the passing of characteristics from one generation to the next via genes.
Each individual possesses a unique combination of genetic instructions meaning that we differ from each other in terms of personality, intelligence, abilities, etc.
Genes code for characteristics such as eye color but also for the structure of the nervous system and for the functioning of the nervous system, i.e., neurochemistry, the number of neurotransmitters produced, and the way they are used.
To determine the involvement of genetic factors, we use twin studies. We compare the concordance rate (the presence of the same trait in both members of a pair of twins) of monozygotic twins (MZ twins-same genetic material) to the concordance rate of dizygotic twins (DZ twins- share 50% of their genetic material).
For example, McGuffin et al. (1996) found 46% concordance for depression in MZ twins compared with 20% in DZ twins.
Genotype and phenotype(AO1)
Genotypeis the genetic code that is written in the DNA, i.e., the genetic makeup of an individual (genes present in each of your cells).
A practical example of the difference between genotype and phenotype: phenylketonuria (PKU).
PKU is a genetic disorder that affects the ability to break down a substance contained in normal foods (phenylalanine).
If the individual follows a strict diet avoiding this substance, his phenotype will be normal intelligence and behavior; however, if an individual eats a diet containing the substance, then it will accumulate in the brain, which will lead to a different phenotype: severe learning difficulties and behavioral problems.
This shows that the presence of particular genes might lead to different outcomes depending on the social environment. This shows that characteristics depend upon aninteractionbetweennature(the genes) andnurture(the environment).
Evolution(AO1)
Charles Darwin proposed the theory ofnatural selection. He argued that genetically determined characteristics or behavior that enhance our chances of survival and reproduction would be passed on to the next generation and become more common in a population, whereas traits that do not enhance survival will gradually disappear.
Issues and debates (Biological)AO3
Nature Vs. nurtureThe biological approach is firmly on the nature side of the debate; however, it does recognize that our brain is a plastic organ that changes with experience in our social world, so it does not entirely deny the influence of nurture.
The biological approach is firmly on the nature side of the debate; however, it does recognize that our brain is a plastic organ that changes with experience in our social world, so it does not entirely deny the influence of nurture.
Idiographic Vs. nomotheticIt is a nomothetic approach as it focuses on establishing laws and theories about the effects of physiological and biochemical processes that apply to all people.
It is a nomothetic approach as it focuses on establishing laws and theories about the effects of physiological and biochemical processes that apply to all people.
Are the research methods used scientific?The biological approach uses very scientific methods such as scans and biochemistry. Animals are often used in this approach as the approach assumes that humans are physiologically similar to animals.
The biological approach uses very scientific methods such as scans and biochemistry. Animals are often used in this approach as the approach assumes that humans are physiologically similar to animals.
Psychodynamic Approach
Tripartite Personality(AO1)
According to Freud, our personality is composed of three parts (tripartite):
To be mentally healthy, the ego has to be able to balance the demands of the ego and the superego. If the superego is dominant, the individual might develop a neurosis, e.g., depression. If the ID is dominant, the individual might develop a psychosis, e.g., schizophrenia.
The Mind(AO1)
The mind is divided into three parts:
Defense Mechanisms(AO1)
Psychosexual Stages of Development(AO1)
For more information on psychosexual stages,click here.
Issues and debates (Psychodynamic)AO3
The psychodynamic approach is primarily holistic, although it contains some reductionist elements.
It views individuals as integrated beings where conscious and unconscious processes are interconnected, and symptoms are understood within the context of a person’s entire life story.
While it does break down the psyche into components like id, ego, and superego, these are seen as interdependent parts of a whole rather than isolated elements.
The approach emphasizes how multiple factors work together to shape psychological development.
Humanistic Psychology
Every person has their ownunique wayof perceiving and understanding the world, and the things they do only make sense in this light. Therefore, the aim of this approach is not objectivity as the other approaches; its aim is to understandpeople’s subjectivity.
Self-actualisation(AO1)
All people have an innate tendency towards growth and the fulfillment of their potential; they have the desire to become everything that they are capable of – self-actualization.
However, according to Maslow, people also have needs that must be met for self-actualization to be possible. The basic needs, e.g., food and water, have to be satisfied before the higher ones.
However, most people don’t perceive thepositive regard of others as being unconditional. They tend to think they will only be loved and valued if they meet certain conditions of worth. Theseconditions of worthcreate incongruity within the self between the real self (how the person is) and the ideal self (how they think they should be or want to be).
Self-actualizationis only possible if there is congruence between the way an individual sees themselves and their ideal self (the way they want to be or think they should be).
If there is a large gap between these two concepts, negative feelings of self-worth will arise that will make it impossible for self-actualization to take place.
Based on this approach, client-centered therapy aims to increase clients’ self-worth and decrease the incongruence between the self-concept and the ideal self.
It is a non-directive therapy in which the client is encouraged to discover their own solutions to their difficulties in an atmosphere that is supportive and non-judgemental and that provides unconditional positive regard.
It focuses on the present rather than dwelling on the past, unlike psychoanalysis. This therapy is widely used, e.g., in health, education, and industry.
Issues and debates (Humanism)AO3
Nature Vs. nurtureThe approach recognizes both the influence of nature and nurture, nurture- the influence of experiences on a person’s ways of perceiving and understanding the world, and nature- the influence of biological drives and needs (Maslow’s hierarchy of needs).
The approach recognizes both the influence of nature and nurture, nurture- the influence of experiences on a person’s ways of perceiving and understanding the world, and nature- the influence of biological drives and needs (Maslow’s hierarchy of needs).
Holism Vs. reductionismThe approach is holistic as it does not try to break down behaviors into simpler components.
The approach is holistic as it does not try to break down behaviors into simpler components.
Idiographic Vs. nomotheticAs this approach views the individual as unique, it does not attempt to establish universal laws about the causes of behavior; it is an idiographic approach.
As this approach views the individual as unique, it does not attempt to establish universal laws about the causes of behavior; it is an idiographic approach.
Are the research methods used scientific?As the approach views the individual as unique, it does not believe that scientific measurements of their behavior are appropriate.
As the approach views the individual as unique, it does not believe that scientific measurements of their behavior are appropriate.
A-Level Psychology Revision Notes
A-Level Psychology Attachment
Psychology Memory Revision NotesSocial Influence Revision NotesPsychopathology Revision NotesPsychology Approaches Revision for A-levelResearch Methods: Definition, Types, & Examples
Psychology Memory Revision Notes
Social Influence Revision NotesPsychopathology Revision NotesPsychology Approaches Revision for A-levelResearch Methods: Definition, Types, & Examples
Social Influence Revision Notes
Psychopathology Revision NotesPsychology Approaches Revision for A-levelResearch Methods: Definition, Types, & Examples
Psychopathology Revision Notes
Psychology Approaches Revision for A-levelResearch Methods: Definition, Types, & Examples
Psychology Approaches Revision for A-level
Research Methods: Definition, Types, & Examples
Issues and Debates in Psychology (A-Level Revision)
Saul McLeod, PhD
BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester
Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.
Elisabeth BrookesPsychology TeacherBSc (Hons), PsychologyElisabeth Brookes has worked as a psychology teacher at Luton Sixth Form College.
Elisabeth BrookesPsychology TeacherBSc (Hons), Psychology
Elisabeth Brookes
Psychology Teacher
BSc (Hons), Psychology
Elisabeth Brookes has worked as a psychology teacher at Luton Sixth Form College.
