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Postmodern feminism is a philosophical tendency within feminism that incorporates postmodern theory and thought into its analysis and critiques of gender, sexuality, culture, politics, power, identity, society, and social relations, arguing that reality and power dynamics aresocially constructedrather than innate or essential.
Key Takeaways
seamless pattern with with faces of women of different nationalities and cultures
What is Postmodern Feminist Theory?
Postmodern feminist theory is a school of thought that emphasizes the importance of social and political factors in understanding gender.
They argue that women have been oppressed not because they are biologically inferior to men, but because they have been socially and politically marginalized.
Postmodern feminism began in the 1970s as a reaction to second-wave feminism.Second-wave feminismwas based on the belief that women were oppressed due to their biology (i.e., their sex). This led to a focus on issues like reproductive rights and equal access to education and employment.
However, postmodern feminists argued that these issues were not enough to liberate women from oppression. Instead, they believed that women’s oppression was the result of social and political factors (Waugh, 2012).
Postmodern feminism is associated with thinkers as diverse as Michel Foucault, Judith Butler, and Donna Haraway.
White, middle-class women, for example, may have more privilege than women of color or working-class women. Similarly, lesbians may experience different forms of oppression than heterosexual women (Waugh, 2012).
Postmodern feminists also critiqued the notion of a unified “sisterhood” among all women. They pointed out that there are many factors that divide women along lines of race, class, sexuality, and other categories. As such, they argued that it was important to focus on the unique experiences of each group of women.
The personal is political
There is no one way to be a woman
This means that there is no universal experience of womanhood. Instead, each woman experiences gender in their own unique way.
Postmodern feminists also believe that gender is not something that people are born with, but rather something that they perform.
In the postmodernist view, feminism is for everyone. This means that feminism is not just for women. It is for anyone who experiences oppression due to their gender, including transgender and genderqueer people (Rossitier, 2000).
Knowledge is power
For example, women can learn about sexism, racism, and other forms of oppression. This knowledge can then be used to challenge and resist these structures of oppression.
Postmodern feminism has been critiqued for its focus on individual experience and its lack of attention to structural issues.
However, it has also been praised for its inclusiveness and its emphasis on the diversity of women’s experiences (Rossitier, 2000).
What are Patriarchy and Sexism?
Patriarchyis a social system in which men hold primary power and predominate in roles of political authority. It occurs in both one’s personal life and within the workplace.
Combined, patriarchy and sexism create a system in which women are oppressed both socially and economically. Patriarchy reinforces sexist attitudes and beliefs, and provides men with the power to act on them.
This can result in women being denied equal rights and opportunities, or experiencing violence and abuse.
Sexism, on its own, can also lead to discrimination and oppression. For example, women may be paid less than men for doing the same job, or be passed over for promotions because of their gender (Lerner, 1986).
What is the Difference Between Feminism and Postmodern Feminism?
Feminismis a political movement that aims to end gender inequality and oppression. It emerged in the 19th century in response to the Industrial Revolution, which led to new opportunities and challenges for women.
Postmodern feminists reject essentialism, which is the belief that there is necessarily an inherent difference between men and women. Postmodern feminists also put an emphasis on the theory of the symbolic order.
The Symbolic Order contends that when young children learn the language, they will have to submit to the Order so they can follow the linguistic patterns of society (Tong & Botts, 2018).
This symbolic order regulates society through individuals, who constantly use the language that perpetuates gender and other social roles (Ebert, 1991).
Examples of Postmodern Feminism Theory
Judith Butler is an American philosopher and gender theorist whose work has been extremely influential within the field of postmodern feminism.
Butler”s most famous work isGender Trouble, in which she challenges the idea that there is a natural, essential difference between men and women.
Instead, Butler argues that gender is something that is performed. This means that it is not something that people are born with, but something they do (Salih & Butler, 2004).
In Gender Trouble (2002), Butler also argues that sex, or at least gender, is constructed through language. This draws on a critique of Simone de Beauvoir, Michel Foucault, Jacques Lacan, and Luce Irigary”s argument that what is conventionally feminine is a reflection of what is considered to be masculine.
Butler also criticizes the distinction between biological sex and socially constructed gender. She argues that this distinction reinforces the idea that there is a natural, essential difference between men and women. This, in turn, justifies men”s dominance over women.
Yet, this argument implies that women’s subordination has no single cause or solution. In lieu of the criticism that postmodern feminism offers no clear path to action, Butler herself rejected the term postmodernism as too vague to be meaningful.
Instead, she advocated for a feminism that is more inclusive and attentive to the particularities of women”s lives (Salih & Butler, 2004).
Mary Joe Frug was an American lawyer and legal scholar. She was a professor at Harvard Law School and New York University School of Law. Frug’s work focused on gender and the law, as well as postmodern feminist theory.
Legal postmodern feminist theory is a theory that critiques the legal system from a feminist perspective. Frug’s work is significant because she was one of the first to bring postmodernism into the field of law (Frug, 2014).
Frug argued that the law is inherently patriarchal and that it therefore benefits men more than women. She critiqued the way that the law treats women as property, rather than autonomous individuals.
Frug also criticized the fact that the law often reinforces gender roles, such as women being expected to be wives and mothers, rather than workers or professionals.
In addition, Frug argued that the law is biased against women in divorce proceedings and child custody cases (Frug, 2014).
Frug’s work was groundbreaking in its application of postmodern feminist theory to the field of law.
French feminism is a branch of feminist thought that originated in France during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
French feminists typically draw on the work of thinkers such as Simone de Beauvoir, Michel Foucault, Jacques Lacan, and Luce Irigary.
Helen Cixous
Helen Cixous is a French-Algerian feminist writer, thinker, and literary critic. She is best known for her work in feminist theory and for her writing style, which she has termed “écriture féminine”.
Cixous” work often focuses on women” ‘s relationship to language and literature (Cixous & Derrida, 1994).
Cixous, most famous for her article, “the laugh of the Medusa,” is critical of the way that women have been excluded from the field of literature (Cixous, 2009). She argues that this exclusion is due to the fact that literature has been seen as a masculine activity.
Cixous also critiques the way that women have been portrayed in literature, arguing that they have typically been shown as objects or subordinate to men. In order to counter this, Cixous advocates for a “feminine ” writing style that would be more inclusive of women’s experiences and perspectives.
Cixous” work has been highly influential in feminist literary criticism. Her ideas about écriture féminine have been particularly influential, as they have allowed for a re-examination of the relationship between women and literature.
Cixous” work has also been significant in its application of postmodernist thought to feminist issues (Cixous & Derrida, 1994).
Luna Irigaray
In Speculum of the Other Women (1974), Irigaray critiques Freud’s theory of the Oedipus complex, arguing that it relies on a masculine understanding of sexuality.
She also argued thatFreud’s theories about womenare based on stereotypes and that they serve to further marginalize women. In addition, Irigaray critiqued Lacan’s re-interpretation of Freud, arguing that it perpetuates the same problems with Freud’s theories.
Irigaray has also written about the ways that women have been excluded from the field of philosophy. She has argued that this exclusion is due to the fact that Western philosophy is based on a masculine understanding of reason.
Irigaray’s work has been highly influential in challenging traditional conceptions of psychoanalysis and philosophy.
Julia Kristeva
In her most famous work, “Women’s time” (1996) Kristeva argues that women have been excluded from history because they have typically been associated with the private sphere of domestic life.
Kristeva also critiques the way that women have been portrayed in literature, arguing that they have typically been shown as objects or subordinate to men.
She also argues that Children undergo various stages in learning languages, where they learn to ascertain shared cultural meaning from language.
Postmodern Feminism Criticism
There have been numerous critiques of postmodern feminism since it originated in the 1990s. Most notably, postmodern feminism has been critiqued for its focus on deconstruction and its alleged rejection of the notion of “woman” as a coherent category.
Some feminists have argued that postmodern feminism’s focus on deconstruction leaves women without a stable identity or sense of self.
This critique is based on the belief that postmodernism, with its emphasis on instability and flux, is inherently anti-feminist.
Other feminists have argued that postmodern feminism’s rejection of the notion of “woman” as a coherent category further marginalizes women.
Despite these critiques, postmodern feminism has had a significant impact on feminist thought. In particular, its focus on deconstruction has allowed for a re-examination of the relationship between women and literature.
Additionally, its application of postmodernist thought to feminist issues has shed new light on familiar problems.
Modernists have also notably criticized postmodern feminism for its abandonment of the values of Enlightenment thought, which precludes the possibility that postmodernists can justify liberating political action.
By emphasizing its rejection of essentialism, critics claim that postmodern feminism has failed to provide a viable political program for women’s emancipation.
Moreover, because postmodernism is often associated with relativism, some modernists argue that it is impossible to make any claims about the oppression of women under patriarchy. In response, postmodern feminists have argued that their critique of essentialism does not mean that they are unable to make political claims.
They maintain that their approach simply takes into account the complex and intersectional nature of women”s experiences (Ebert, 1991).
Alison Assister, in her bookEnlightened Women, critiqued postmodern feminism for its focus on deconstruction and its alleged rejection of the notion of “woman” as a coherent category.
Assister argued that postmodern feminism’s focus on deconstruction leaves women without a stable identity or sense of self. This critique is based on the belief that postmodernism, with its emphasis on instability and flux, is inherently anti-feminist.
References
Butler, J. (2002).Gender trouble. Routledge.
Cixous, H. (2009). The laugh of the Medusa.Feminisms Redux,416-431.
Cixous, H., & Derrida, J. (1994). The Hélène Cixous Reader.Psychology Press.
Ebert, T. L. (1991).The” difference” of postmodern feminism.College English, 53(8), 886-904.
Frug, M. J. (2014).Postmodern legal feminism. Routledge.
Hanisch, C. (1970).The Person is Political
Irigaray, L. (1974).Speculum of the other woman. Cornell University Press.
Kristeva, J. (1996). Women’s time. Women, Knowledge, and Reality:Explorations in Feminist Philosophy, 61-83.
Lerner, G. (1986).The creation of patriarchy(Vol. 1). Women and History; V. 1.
Rossiter, A. (2000).The postmodern feminist condition. B. Fawcett, B. Featherstone, J. Fook y A. Rossiter,Practice and research in social work, 24-38.
Salih, S., & Butler, J. (2004).The Judith Butler reader.
Schneider, E. M. (1991).Violence Against Women and Legal Education: An Essay for Mary Joe Frug.New Eng. L. Rev., 26, 843.
Tong, R., & Botts, T. F. (2018).Feminist thought: A more comprehensive introduction. Routledge.
Waugh, P. (2012).Feminine fictions: Revisiting the postmodern.Routledge.
Saul McLeod, PhD
BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester
Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.
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BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education
Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.
Charlotte NickersonResearch Assistant at Harvard UniversityUndergraduate at Harvard UniversityCharlotte Nickerson is a student at Harvard University obsessed with the intersection of mental health, productivity, and design.
Charlotte NickersonResearch Assistant at Harvard UniversityUndergraduate at Harvard University
Charlotte Nickerson
Research Assistant at Harvard University
Undergraduate at Harvard University
Charlotte Nickerson is a student at Harvard University obsessed with the intersection of mental health, productivity, and design.
