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Unlikeconcrete operational thinking, which is limited to reasoning about tangible objects and events, formal operational thought enables individuals to manipulate ideas, consider hypothetical scenarios, and engage in deductive reasoning without needing physical objects as referents
In the formal operational stage, children tend to reason more abstractly, systematically, and reflectively. They are more likely to use logic to reason out the possible consequences of each action before carrying it out.
For example, a child in the formal operational stage can solve algebraic equations or understand complex scientific concepts, which involve manipulating abstract symbols and relationships
An example of the distinction between concrete and formal operational stages is the answer to the question, “If Kelly is taller than Ali and Ali is taller than Jo, who is tallest?”
This is an example of inferential reasoning, which is the ability to think about things which the child has not actually experienced and to draw conclusions from its thinking.
The child who needs to draw a picture or use objects is still in theconcrete operational stage, whereas children who can reason the answer in their heads use formal operational thinking.
Formal Operational Thought
Hypothetico-Deductive ReasoningHypothetico-deductive reasoning is the ability to think scientifically through generating predictions, or hypotheses, about the world to answer questions.The individual will approach problems in a systematic and organized manner rather than through trial and error.An example of formal operational thought could be the cognitive ability to plan and test different solutions to a problem systematically, a process often referred to as “scientific thinking.”The key steps of scientific inquiry include: forming a hypothesis about the outcome of the chemical reaction, conducting a careful experiment, observing the results, and then analyzing these findings to either confirm or revise their original hypothesis.The ability to form hypotheses, conduct experiments, analyze results, and use deductive reasoning is an example of formal operational thought.Engaging in such reasoning likely requires metacognitive strategies like:Planning:Formulating hypotheses and designing experiments to test them.Monitoring:Keeping track of the steps in the deductive process and evaluating the validity of inferences.Evaluating:Assessing the outcomes of tests and revising hypotheses based on evidence
Hypothetico-Deductive Reasoning
Hypothetico-deductive reasoning is the ability to think scientifically through generating predictions, or hypotheses, about the world to answer questions.The individual will approach problems in a systematic and organized manner rather than through trial and error.An example of formal operational thought could be the cognitive ability to plan and test different solutions to a problem systematically, a process often referred to as “scientific thinking.”The key steps of scientific inquiry include: forming a hypothesis about the outcome of the chemical reaction, conducting a careful experiment, observing the results, and then analyzing these findings to either confirm or revise their original hypothesis.The ability to form hypotheses, conduct experiments, analyze results, and use deductive reasoning is an example of formal operational thought.Engaging in such reasoning likely requires metacognitive strategies like:
Hypothetico-deductive reasoning is the ability to think scientifically through generating predictions, or hypotheses, about the world to answer questions.
The individual will approach problems in a systematic and organized manner rather than through trial and error.
An example of formal operational thought could be the cognitive ability to plan and test different solutions to a problem systematically, a process often referred to as “scientific thinking.”
The key steps of scientific inquiry include: forming a hypothesis about the outcome of the chemical reaction, conducting a careful experiment, observing the results, and then analyzing these findings to either confirm or revise their original hypothesis.
The ability to form hypotheses, conduct experiments, analyze results, and use deductive reasoning is an example of formal operational thought.
- Combinatorial OperationsCombinatorial operations represent a significant advancement in cognitive abilities, enabling individuals to think systematically about possibilities and relationships.At its core, the ability for combinatorial operations is the capacity to systematically generate all possible combinations of elements.This cognitive process involves considering all the different ways elements can be combined, regardless of whether those combinations exist in reality.For instance, if presented with four colored blocks (red, blue, green, and yellow), an individual capable of combinatorial operations can mentally list all possible pairings: red-blue, red-green, red-yellow, blue-green, blue-yellow, and green-yellow.This ability extends beyond simple pairings to include combinations of three, four, or more elements.When faced with a scientific problem, individuals in the formal operational stage can use combinatorial operations to:Isolate Variables:Combinatorial thinking enables individuals to consider each variable independently and in conjunction with others, allowing them to determine the specific influence of each variable on the outcome.Design Systematic Tests:They can systematically generate all possible combinations of variables, leading to a more rigorous and comprehensive approach to experimentation
2. Combinatorial Operations
Combinatorial operations represent a significant advancement in cognitive abilities, enabling individuals to think systematically about possibilities and relationships.
At its core, the ability for combinatorial operations is the capacity to systematically generate all possible combinations of elements.
This cognitive process involves considering all the different ways elements can be combined, regardless of whether those combinations exist in reality.
For instance, if presented with four colored blocks (red, blue, green, and yellow), an individual capable of combinatorial operations can mentally list all possible pairings: red-blue, red-green, red-yellow, blue-green, blue-yellow, and green-yellow.
This ability extends beyond simple pairings to include combinations of three, four, or more elements.
When faced with a scientific problem, individuals in the formal operational stage can use combinatorial operations to:
3. Abstract Thought
Concrete operations are carried out on things, whereas formal operations are carried out on ideas. Individuals can think about hypothetical and abstract concepts they have yet to experience.
Formal operational thought enables individuals to manipulate ideas and concepts without needing physical objects as references.
Adolescents can now think about abstract concepts and ideas, which allows them to consider possibilities beyond the concrete world. This enables them to reflect on their own thought processes and strategies.
They can think about abstract concepts likejustice, freedom, or infinity and engage in complex reasoning about hypothetical situations, unlike concrete operational thinking which is limited to tangible objects and events
For instance, they can comprehend and discuss a statement such as “Justice is not always fair.”
4. Subordination of Reality to Possibility
A crucial aspect of formal operational thought: is the subordination of reality to possibility.
This means that individuals in this stage can reason about possibilities beyond the immediate empirical reality.
5. Adolescent Egocentrism
A form of egocentrism that can emerge in adolescence due to the newfound capacity for abstract thought.
This egocentrism manifests in adolescents’ tendency to overestimate the importance of their thoughts and perspectives, often leading to idealism and a sense of uniqueness.
Adolescents often develop a “Messianic complex,” believing they are destined to play a significant role in reforming society. This belief fuels their idealistic theories and ambitious life plans.
This cognitive egocentrism stems from the adolescent’s difficulty in differentiating between their own unique perspective and the complexities of the social and cosmic universe.
Decentering, the process of moving beyond egocentricity, is crucial for the transition from adolescence to adulthood.
Engaging in discussions (particularly within peer groups), challenging each other’s theories, and confronting differing perspectives help adolescents to recognize the limitations of their own viewpoints.
Entering the workforce or engaging in serious professional training plays a critical role in decentering, as it forces adolescents to reconcile their idealistic theories with the practical demands of the real world. This integration of thought and experience leads to a more balanced and realistic perspective.
Testing Formal Operations
Piaget(1970) devised several tests of formal operational thought. One of the simplest was the “third eye problem”. Children were asked where they would put an extra eye, if they could have a third one, and why.
Schaffer (1988) reported that when asked this question, 9-year-olds all suggested that the third eye should be on the forehead. However, 11-year-olds were more inventive, suggesting that a third eye placed on the hand would be useful for seeing round corners.
The Pendulum Experiment
Formal operational thinking has also been tested experimentally using the pendulum task (Inhelder & Piaget, 1958).
To find the correct answer, the participant has to grasp the idea of the experimental method – that is to vary one variable at a time (e.g., trying different lengths with the same weight). A participant who tries different lengths with different weights will likely end up with the wrong answer.
Children in the formal operational stage approached the task systematically, testing one variable (such as varying the string length) at a time to see its effect.
However, younger children typically tried out these variations randomly or changed two things simultaneously.
Piaget concluded that the systematic approach indicated that children were thinking logically, in the abstract, and could see the relationships between things. These are the characteristics of the formal operational stage.
The Horizontal Ball Launching Experiment
This experiment uses a spring device to launch balls of varying sizes and weights across a horizontal plane (Inhelder & Piaget, 1958). The setup allows for varying the force of the launch and the angle of release.
Participants are asked to predict where the balls will stop, requiring an understanding of the factors influencing the ball’s trajectory.
The horizontal ball launching experiment is designed to assess formal operational thought:
Critical Evaluation
Some critics argue that Piagetian tasks are too abstract and removed from children’s everyday experiences, limiting the ecological validity of findings.
Psychologists who have replicated this research, or used a similar problem, have generally found that children cannot complete the task successfully until they are older.
Robert Siegler (1979) gave children a balance beam task in which some discs were placed on either side of the center of balance. The researcher changed the number of discs or moved them along the beam, each time asking the child to predict which way the balance would go.
Like Piaget, he found that eventually, the children were able to take into account the interaction between the weight of the discs and the distance from the center, and so successfully predict balance. However, this did not happen until participants were between 13 and 17 years of age.
He concluded that children’s cognitive development is based on acquiring and using rules in increasingly more complex situations, rather than in stages.
Teaching Strategies
It is important to remember that students in the formal operational stage will vary in their cognitive abilities and developmental pace.
Teachers should differentiate instruction to meet the diverse needs of their students, providing individualized support and challenging activities that cater to different learning styles and levels of understanding.
1. Scientific Thinking
Teachers should design activities that challenge students to formulate hypotheses, design experiments to test those hypotheses, and analyze the results.
Teachers can use questions that prompt students to identify the variables involved in a situation, analyze the relationships between those variables, and explain how those relationships contribute to the overall system.
In a biology class, students could be asked to design an experiment to investigate the factors that affect plant growth, such as light, water, or nutrients.
2. Abstract Reasoning
This could involve using analogies, metaphors, and visual representations to make abstract ideas more concrete.
For example, teaching mathematical concepts through real-world applications or exploring historical events through the lens of different theoretical frameworks.
As students transition into adulthood, they need to integrate their abstract thought processes with the practical demands of the real world.
Teachers should connect classroom learning to real-world experiences whenever possible.
This could involve internships, service-learning projects, or case studies that require students to apply their knowledge to solve authentic problems.
3. Distinguishing Between Concrete and Formal Operations
Teachers can use questions that require students to differentiate between concrete and abstract concepts, analyze the underlying logic of arguments, and identify potential biases or assumptions in their reasoning.
In a history class, students could be asked to analyze primary source documents to identify the author’s perspective, potential biases, and the historical context that shaped their views.
4. Facilitate Metacognitive Awareness
This could involve incorporating reflective journaling, peer feedback sessions, or self-assessment activities into the curriculum.
5. Foster Decentering Through Social Interaction
Encourage social interaction to promote decentering, the process of moving beyond egocentrism.
Teachers should structure learning environments that encourage collaboration, discussion, and the respectful exchange of ideas.
This could involve group projects, peer teaching activities, or structured debates where students must consider different viewpoints.
Teachers can use questions that challenge students to consider ethical dilemmas from multiple perspectives.
Students could be presented with a hypothetical moral dilemma, such as a conflict between loyalty and honesty, and asked to analyze the situation from different perspectives, evaluate the potential outcomes, and justify their decision based on ethical considerations.
6. Constructing Theories and Life Programs
Adolescents in the formal operational stage engage in constructing theories about the world and developing life plans based on their ideals and aspirations.
Teachers can use questions that challenge students to synthesize information from multiple sources, develop original arguments, and create solutions to complex problems.
For example, students could be presented with a social issue, such as climate change or income inequality, and asked to research different perspectives, synthesize the information, and propose potential solutions based on their analysis.
7. Evaluating Evidence and Constructing Arguments
The importance of rigorous methods of proof and the ability to evaluate evidence objectively.
Teachers can use questions that require students to critically evaluate the validity and reliability of sources, assess the strengths and weaknesses of different arguments, and justify their conclusions based on the evidence.
In a literature class, students could be asked to analyze the author’s use of evidence, rhetoric, and logical fallacies to evaluate the effectiveness of their argument.
Learning Check
Which of the following is/are not an indication of an individual being in the formal operational stage?
Mark often struggles with planning for the future. He can’t envision different possible outcomes based on his actions. Which of the following is true about Mark?a. He is in the Formal Operational stage.b. He is in the Preoperational stage.c. He is in the Concrete Operational stage.d. He is in the Sensorimotor stage.
Which of the following actions does NOT indicate that Lucy is in the Formal Operational stage?a. Lucy can think about abstract concepts like justice and fairness.b. Lucy enjoys debates and discussions where she can express her thoughts.c. Lucy can only solve problems that are concrete and immediately present.d. Lucy enjoys conducting experiments to test her hypotheses.
Sam can play with his friends and imagine what they think about him. However, he can’t conceptualize different outcomes of a hypothetical situation. What stage is Sam likely in?a. He is in the Formal Operational stage.b. He is in the Preoperational stage.c. He is in the Concrete Operational stage.d. He is in the Sensorimotor stage.
Answers:
References
Inhelder, B., & Piaget, J. (1958). Adolescent thinking.
Inhelder, B., & Piaget, J. (1958). The conservation of motion in a horizontal plane.
Piaget, J. (1970).Science of education and the psychology of the child. Trans. D. Coltman.
Schaffer, H. R. (1988). Child Psychology: the future. In S. Chess & A. Thomas (eds),Annual Progress in Child Psychiatry and Child Development. NY: Brunner/Mazel.
Siegler, R. S. & Richards, D. (1979). Development of time, speed and distance concepts.Developmental Psychology, 15, 288-298.
Schwartz, P. D., Maynard, A. M., & Uzelac, S. M. (2008). Adolescent egocentrism: A contemporary view. Adolescence, 43(171), 441–448.
Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc
BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education
Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.
Saul McLeod, PhD
BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester
Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.
