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What is phenomenology?
This approach is particularly valuable for gaining insights into people’s motivations and actions, and for cutting through taken-for-granted assumptions and conventional wisdom.
Aim of Phenomenological Research
The aim of phenomenological research is to arrive at phenomenal understandings and insights into the meaning of lived experience.
These insights should be “impressively unique” and “primordially meaningful”, illuminating the specific experience being studied.
Phenomenological research attempts to uncover the meaning in lived experiences that are often overlooked in daily life. In other words, phenomenology asks the basic question: “What is this (primal) experience like?
To do this, phenomenological research examines experience as it appears to consciousness, seeking to avoid any preconceptions or assumptions.
Rather than simply describing what participants say, phenomenological research seeks to go deeper, to uncover implicit meanings and reveal the participant’s lifeworld.
This is not a matter of making generalized statements, but of understanding the experience from the individual’s perspective.
The aim is not to provide causal explanations or to theorize about the experience, but to “restore to each experience the ontological cipher which marks it internally.
Characteristics of Phenomenology
Phenomenology is best understood as a radical, anti-traditional style of philosophising that emphasizes describing phenomena as they appear to consciousness.
It is not a set of dogmas or a system, but rather a practice of doing philosophy.
Here are some key characteristics of phenomenology:
Is phenomenology an epistemology or ontology?
Phenomenology straddles or undermines the traditional distinction between epistemology and ontology. Traditionally, epistemology is understood as the study of how we come to understand and have knowledge of the world, while ontology is the study of the nature of reality itself.
Instead of separating subject and object, or the knower and the known, phenomenology highlights their interrelation, arguing that the mind is essentially open to the world, and reality is essentially capable of manifesting itself to us.
Exploring Phenomenology: Three Key Perspectives
1. Husserl’s Transcendental Phenomenology
Edmund Husserl viewed phenomenology as the “science of the essence of consciousness”, emphasizing the intentional structure of conscious acts.
Central for phenomenological psychology was phenomenological philosopher Husserl’s understanding of “intentionality,” the idea that whenever we are conscious we are conscious of something, making the job of the researcher to better understand people’s experiences of things “in their appearing” (Langdridge, 2007, p. 13).
2. Heidegger’s Hermeneutical Phenomenology:
3. Merleau-Ponty’s Idea of Perception
Data Collection in Phenomenological Research
Phenomenological research focuses on understanding lived experience, and therefore relies on qualitative data that can illuminate the subjective experiences of individuals.
Because phenomenology aims to examine experience on its own terms, it is wary of imposing pre-defined categories or structures on the data.
Many phenomenological philosophers and researchers avoid using the term “method” in favor of talking about the phenomenological “approach.”
Interviews
Interviewsare a common method for collecting data in phenomenological research.
Researchers typically use semi-structured or unstructured interviews, which prioritize open-ended questions and allow participants to describe their experiences in their own words.
These interviews aim to elicit detailed, concrete descriptions of specific experiences rather than abstract generalizations.
For instance, instead of asking “What does friendship mean to you?”, a researcher might ask: “Can you describe a time you felt particularly connected to a friend?”.
This shift from the abstract to the concrete helps researchers access the pre-reflective, lived experience of the phenomenon, revealing its texture and nuanc
Researchers may also use follow-up questions to clarify or gain a deeper understanding of participants’ responses.
Beyond interviews, phenomenological research may draw upon a variety of other methods, including:
“Examples” are particularly important in phenomenological research.Rather than treating individual experiences as mere illustrations of general concepts, phenomenology understands examples as offering a unique window into the essence of a phenomenon.
Researchers carefully select and analyze examples to uncover and articulate the essential features of a lived experience.
Number of Participants in Phenomenological Studies
There is no prescribed number of participants required for a phenomenological study. Some researchers may choose to include a larger number of participants.
Phenomenological research emphasizes in-depth understanding of lived experiences rather than statistical generalization.
Therefore, sample size is less important than the richness and depth of the data obtained from the participants.
However, phenomenological studies that include more than a handful of participants risk being superficial and may miss the spirit of phenomenology.
Analyzing Data in Phenomenological Research
There are a variety of approaches to conducting phenomenological research and analyzing data.
The variety of approaches within phenomenological research can make it challenging for students to navigate, as there are no fixed rules or procedures
The specific analytic strategies used in a phenomenological study depend on the researcher’s chosen approach and the nature of the phenomenon being investigated.
Some researchers advocate for a more orthodox approach to phenomenological research that prioritizes rigorous description and aims to uncover essential structures of experience.
Descriptive Phenomenology
For example, Giorgi’s descriptive phenomenological method involves a multi-step procedure for analyzing descriptions of lived experience:
Hermeneutic Phenomenology
Other researchers, while still grounding their work in phenomenological philosophy, emphasize the importance of interpretation in understanding the unique, lived experience of individuals.
For example, van Manen’shermeneutic phenomenologyemphasizes the role of interpretation and reflection in uncovering meaning in lived experience.
It acknowledges the researcher’s role in shaping interpretations and emphasizes the transition from pre-reflective experience to conceptual understanding.
Van Manen suggests that researchers should explicate their own assumptions and biases in order to better understand how they might be shaping their interpretations of the data.
His approach also highlights the importance of understanding the transition from pre-reflective experience to conceptual understanding.
Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis
If you are learning phenomenology, struggling with the material is expected.
Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis(IPA) has become popular because it offers novice researchers a concrete structure, but its set structures may cause researchers to get caught up in method and lose the essence of the phenomenon being studied.
It focuses on individual experiences and interpretations rather than aiming to uncover universal essences. IPA draws on a broader range of phenomenological thinkers than just Husserl.
Critical Phenomenology
Critical phenomenology acknowledges that societal structures like capitalism, colonialism, and patriarchy shape our lifeworlds and cannot be fully put aside
A key goal of critical phenomenology is to identify practical strategies for challenging oppressive structures and fostering liberatory ways of being in the world.
In psychology, phenomenology is linked with a critical realist epistemology; here, the real world exists, but it cannot be fully discovered because our experiences of it are always mediated (Shaw, 2019).
Reflexivity in Phenomenological Research
Phenomenological research acknowledges that researchers are active participants who bring their own perspectives and experiences to the research process.
This process, known asbracketing, is an attempt to approach the research with “fresh eyes,” free from contaminating assumptions. It involves:
Bracketing is an ongoing process that requires mindfulness, curiosity, compassion, and a “genuinely unknowing stance” to remain open to new understandings and avoid imposing the researcher’s own biases on the data.
This is essential for rigorous phenomenological research, as subjectivity is central to the investigation.
However, different schools of thought within phenomenology emphasize different aspects of bracketing:
By acknowledging the researcher’s role and emphasizing reflexivity, phenomenological research aims to ensure that findings remain grounded in the participants’ lived experiences, avoiding the imposition of the researcher’s own assumptions or biases.
Pitfalls of Phenomenology Research
A common pitfall of phenomenology research is failing to fully grasp the nuances of phenomenological philosophy.
For example, some studies that use Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) do not adequately acknowledge their hermeneutic foundations or the need to engage in the Epoché, which helps limit the researcher’s pre-understandings.
Without this philosophical anchoring, the research is merelythematic analysis instead of phenomenology.
Other pitfalls in phenomenology research include:
Convincing phenomenological research should:
Despite ongoing debates among scholars about the best way to apply phenomenology, they share a commitment to an approach of openness and wonder.
This requires discipline, practice, and patience throughout the research process. Phenomenology has the potential to reveal new insights into the nature of lived experience.
Further Information
Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc
BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education
Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.
Saul McLeod, PhD
BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester
Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.
