Table of ContentsView AllTable of ContentsHistoryBehavior TypesReinforcementPunishmentReinforcement SchedulesExamples
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Table of Contents
History
Behavior Types
Reinforcement
Punishment
Reinforcement Schedules
Examples
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We all engage in behaviors that we know will lead to good outcomes. We also tend to avoid behaviors that we know will have negative consequences. So it makes sense that being rewarded for something makes you want to do it more often (and being punished makes you want to do it less). This type of learning is what the behavioral psychologist B.F. Skinner dubbed it ‘operant conditioning,’ and it can have a powerful effect on your everyday behavior.
Operant conditioning, sometimes referred to asinstrumental conditioning, is a learning method that employs rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence (whether negative or positive) for that behavior.
For example, when lab rats press a lever when a green light is on, they receive a food pellet as a reward. When they press the lever when a red light is on, they receive a mild electric shock. As a result, they learn to press the lever when the green light is on and avoid the red light.
However, operant conditioning is not just something that takes place in experimental settings while training lab animals. It also plays a powerful role in everyday learning. Reinforcement and punishment take place in natural settings all the time, as well as in more structured settings such as classrooms or therapy sessions.
Keep reading to learn more about the origins of operant conditioning, how the process works, and examples of how it can be used to teach, modify, and shape your actions.
Verywell / Joshua Seong
The History of Operant Conditioning
Watson’s Influence
Through the first part of the 20th century, behaviorism became a major force within psychology. The ideas ofJohn B. Watsondominated this school of thought early on. Watson focused on the principles ofclassical conditioning, once famously suggesting that he could take any person regardless of their background and train them to be anything he chose.
Early behaviorists focused their interests on associative learning. Skinner was more interested in how theconsequencesof people’s actions influenced their behavior.
Skinner used the termoperantto refer to any “active behavior that operates upon the environment to generate consequences.” Skinner’s theory explained how we acquire the range of learned behaviors we exhibit every day.
Thorndike’s Influence
How It Works
Conversely, actions that result in punishment or undesirable consequences will be weakened and less likely to occur again in the future. If you tell the same story again in another class but nobody laughs this time, you will be less likely to repeat the story again in the future. If you shout out an answer in class and your teacher scolds you, then you might be less likely to interrupt the class again.
Respondent vs. Operant Behaviors
Skinner distinguished between two different types of behaviors
While classical conditioning could account for respondent behaviors, Skinner realized that it could not account for a great deal of learning. Instead, Skinner suggested that operant conditioning held far greater importance.
Skinner invented different devices during his boyhood and he put these skills to work during his studies on operant conditioning. He created a device known as an operant conditioning chamber, often referred to today as aSkinner box. The chamber could hold a small animal, such as a rat or pigeon. The box also contained a bar or key that the animal could press in order to receive a reward.
Components of Operant ConditioningSeveral key concepts in operant conditioning exist. The type of reinforcement or punishment used can affect how the individual responds and the effect of conditioning. Four types of operant conditioning can be utilized to change behavior: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, and negative punishment.
Components of Operant Conditioning
Several key concepts in operant conditioning exist. The type of reinforcement or punishment used can affect how the individual responds and the effect of conditioning. Four types of operant conditioning can be utilized to change behavior: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, and negative punishment.
Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of reinforcers. In both of these cases of reinforcement, the behavior increases.
Positive Reinforcement
Negative Reinforcement
Reinforcement in Conditioning Behavior
Punishment in Operant Conditioning
Punishment is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of punishment. In both of these cases, the behavior decreases.
Positive Punishment
Negative Punishment
RecapThe five principles of operant conditioning are positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, negative punishment, and extinction. Extinction occurs when a response is no longer reinforced or punished, which can lead to the fading and disappearance of the behavior.
Recap
The five principles of operant conditioning are positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, negative punishment, and extinction. Extinction occurs when a response is no longer reinforced or punished, which can lead to the fading and disappearance of the behavior.
Punishment and its Influence on Behavior
Operant Conditioning Reinforcement Schedules
Reinforcement is not necessarily a straightforward process, and there are a number of factors that can influence how quickly and how well new things are learned. Skinner found thatwhenandhow oftenbehaviors were reinforced played a role in the speed and strength ofacquisition.
In other words, the timing and frequency of reinforcement influenced how new behaviors were learned and how old behaviors were modified.
Skinner identified several different schedules of reinforcement that impact the operant conditioning process:
Continuous Reinforcement
Continuous reinforcement involves delivering a reinforcement every time a response occurs. Learning tends to occur relatively quickly, yet the response rate is quite low. Extinction also occurs very quickly once reinforcement is halted.
Partial Reinforcement
Once a behavior has been established, it is usually best to transition to a partial reinforcement schedule. In this type of schedule, behaviors are only reinforced sometimes. This can be based on the number of responses that have occurred or how much time has elapsed.
How Schedules of Reinforcement Work in Psychology
Examples of Operant Conditioning
Whether you were aware of it or not, you have learned something through operant conditioning. You may have even used it yourself without even being aware of it.
We can find examples of operant conditioning at work all around us. Consider the case of children completing homework to earn a reward from a parent or teacher, or employees finishing projects to receive praise or promotions. More examples of operant conditioning in action include:
In some of these examples, the promise or possibility of rewards causes an increase in behavior.
Operant conditioning can also be used to decrease a behavior via the removal of a desirable outcome or the application of a negative outcome. For example, a child may be told they will lose recess privileges if they talk out of turn in class. This potential for punishment may lead to a decrease in disruptive behaviors.
Takeaways
While behaviorism may have lost much of the dominance it held during the early part of the 20th century, operant conditioning remains an important and often used tool in the learning and behavior modification process. Sometimes, natural consequences lead to changes in our behavior. In other instances, rewards and punishments may be consciously doled out to create a change.
Operant conditioning is something you may immediately recognize in your own life, whether in your approach to teaching your children good behavior or training the family dog.
Remember that any type of learning takes time. Consider the type of reinforcement or punishment that may work best for your unique situation and assess which type of reinforcement schedule might lead to the best results.
Behavior Modification: Techniques for Positive Behavior Change
5 SourcesVerywell Mind uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Staddon JE, Cerutti DT.Operant conditioning.Annu Rev Psychol.2003;54:115-44. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145124Rilling M.How the challenge of explaining learning influenced the origins and development of John B. Watson’s behaviorism.Am J Psychol. 2000;113(2):275-301.Athalye VR, Santos FJ, Carmena JM, Costa RM.Evidence for a neural law of effect.Science. 2018;359(6379):1024-1029. doi:10.1126/science.aao6058Johnson AR, Christensen BA, Kelly SJ, Calipari ES.The influence of reinforcement schedule on experience-dependent changes in motivation.J Exp Anal Behav. 2022;117(3):320-330. doi:10.1002/jeab.755Hulac D, Benson N, Nesmith M, Wollersheim S.Using variable interval reinforcement schedules to support students in the classroom: An introduction with illustrative examples.J Educ Res Prac.2016;16(1):90-96. doi:10.5590/JERAP.2016.06.1.06Additional ReadingCoon, D & Mitterer, JO. Psychology: A Journey. Wadsworth, 2014.Domjan, M. The Principles of Learning and Behavior, Seventh Edition. Cengage Learning, 2015.
5 Sources
Verywell Mind uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Staddon JE, Cerutti DT.Operant conditioning.Annu Rev Psychol.2003;54:115-44. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145124Rilling M.How the challenge of explaining learning influenced the origins and development of John B. Watson’s behaviorism.Am J Psychol. 2000;113(2):275-301.Athalye VR, Santos FJ, Carmena JM, Costa RM.Evidence for a neural law of effect.Science. 2018;359(6379):1024-1029. doi:10.1126/science.aao6058Johnson AR, Christensen BA, Kelly SJ, Calipari ES.The influence of reinforcement schedule on experience-dependent changes in motivation.J Exp Anal Behav. 2022;117(3):320-330. doi:10.1002/jeab.755Hulac D, Benson N, Nesmith M, Wollersheim S.Using variable interval reinforcement schedules to support students in the classroom: An introduction with illustrative examples.J Educ Res Prac.2016;16(1):90-96. doi:10.5590/JERAP.2016.06.1.06Additional ReadingCoon, D & Mitterer, JO. Psychology: A Journey. Wadsworth, 2014.Domjan, M. The Principles of Learning and Behavior, Seventh Edition. Cengage Learning, 2015.
Verywell Mind uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.
Staddon JE, Cerutti DT.Operant conditioning.Annu Rev Psychol.2003;54:115-44. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145124Rilling M.How the challenge of explaining learning influenced the origins and development of John B. Watson’s behaviorism.Am J Psychol. 2000;113(2):275-301.Athalye VR, Santos FJ, Carmena JM, Costa RM.Evidence for a neural law of effect.Science. 2018;359(6379):1024-1029. doi:10.1126/science.aao6058Johnson AR, Christensen BA, Kelly SJ, Calipari ES.The influence of reinforcement schedule on experience-dependent changes in motivation.J Exp Anal Behav. 2022;117(3):320-330. doi:10.1002/jeab.755Hulac D, Benson N, Nesmith M, Wollersheim S.Using variable interval reinforcement schedules to support students in the classroom: An introduction with illustrative examples.J Educ Res Prac.2016;16(1):90-96. doi:10.5590/JERAP.2016.06.1.06
Staddon JE, Cerutti DT.Operant conditioning.Annu Rev Psychol.2003;54:115-44. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145124
Rilling M.How the challenge of explaining learning influenced the origins and development of John B. Watson’s behaviorism.Am J Psychol. 2000;113(2):275-301.
Athalye VR, Santos FJ, Carmena JM, Costa RM.Evidence for a neural law of effect.Science. 2018;359(6379):1024-1029. doi:10.1126/science.aao6058
Johnson AR, Christensen BA, Kelly SJ, Calipari ES.The influence of reinforcement schedule on experience-dependent changes in motivation.J Exp Anal Behav. 2022;117(3):320-330. doi:10.1002/jeab.755
Hulac D, Benson N, Nesmith M, Wollersheim S.Using variable interval reinforcement schedules to support students in the classroom: An introduction with illustrative examples.J Educ Res Prac.2016;16(1):90-96. doi:10.5590/JERAP.2016.06.1.06
Coon, D & Mitterer, JO. Psychology: A Journey. Wadsworth, 2014.Domjan, M. The Principles of Learning and Behavior, Seventh Edition. Cengage Learning, 2015.
Coon, D & Mitterer, JO. Psychology: A Journey. Wadsworth, 2014.
Domjan, M. The Principles of Learning and Behavior, Seventh Edition. Cengage Learning, 2015.
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