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Self-esteem should be viewed as a continuum and can be high, medium, or low, and it is often quantified as a number in empirical research.
When considering self-esteem, it is important to note that both high and low levels can be emotionally and socially harmful to the individual. Indeed it is thought an optimum level of self-esteem lies in the middle of the continuum. Individuals operating within this range are thought to be more socially dominant within relationships.
Empirical Research
Research has shown key differences between individuals with high and low self-esteem. For example, people with high self-esteem focus on growth and improvement, whereas people with low self-esteem focus on not making mistakes in life.
Low self-esteem has been shown to be correlated with several negative outcomes, such as depression (Silverstone & Salsali, 2003).
This in turn makes social interaction with others difficult as they feel awkward, shy, conspicuous, and unable to adequately express themselves when interacting with others (p. 409). Furthermore, low self-esteem individuals tend to be pessimistic towards people and groups within society.
Research has also shown that low self-esteem has to linked to an increased risk of teenage pregnancy.
Guindon (2002) asked school counsellors to list five characteristics that best describe students with low self-esteem. Over 1000 words were used and the most common are listed below:
Low Self-Esteem in Children
It should be noted that, on average, self-esteem during childhood is found to be relatively high. However, there are individual differences, and some children are unfortunate to experience feelings of low self-esteem.
Children with low self-esteem rely on coping strategies that are counterproductive such as bullying, quitting, cheating, avoiding, etc. Although all children will display some of these behaviors at times, low self-esteem is strongly indicated when these behaviors appear with regularity.
Socially children with low self-esteem can be withdrawn or shy and find it difficult to have fun. Although they may have a wide circle of friends, they are more likely to yield to group pressure and more vulnerable to bullying. At school, they avoid trying new things (for fear of failure) and will give up easily.
Low Self-Esteem in Teenagers
Self-esteem continues to decline during adolescence (particularly for girls). Researchers have explained this decline to body image and other problems associated with puberty.
Girls with low self-esteem appear to be more vulnerable to perceptions of the ideal body image perpetuated in western media (through methods such as airbrushing models on magazine covers).
References
Abraham, T. (1988). Toward a Self-Evaluation Maintenance Model of Social behavior. In L. Berkowitz (Ed),Advances in Experimental Social Psychology(pp. 181–227).Academic Press.
Coopersmith, S. (1967).The Antecedents of Self-esteem. Freeman.
Harter, S. 1993. Causes and Consequences of Low Self-esteem in Children and Adolescents. In Baumeister, R.F. (Ed.)Self-Esteem: The Puzzle of Low Self-regard(pp. 87-116).
Mruk, C. (1995).Self-Esteem: Research, Theory, and Practice. Springer.
Guindon, M. H. (2002). Toward Accountability in the Use of the Self‐Esteem Construct.Journal of Counseling & Development, 80(2), 204-214.
Robins, R.W., Trzesniewski, K.H., Tracy, J.L., Gosling, S.D., & Potter, J. (2002). Global self-esteem across the lifespan.Psychology and Aging, 17, 423-434.
Rosenberg, M. (1976).Beyond Self-Esteem: The Neglected Issues in Self-concept Research. Paper presented at the annual meetings of the ASA.
Rosenberg, M. (1979).Conceiving the Self. Basic Books.
Rosenberg, M., & Owens, T.J. (2001). Low self-esteem people: A collective portrait. In T.J. Owens. S. Stryker, & N. Goodmanm (Eds.),Extending self-esteem theory and research(pp. 400-436). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Silverstone, P. H., & Salsali, M. (2003). Low self-esteem and psychiatric patients: Part I–The relationship between low self-esteem and psychiatric diagnosis.Annals of General Psychiatry, 2(1), 2.
Viktor, G. (1982). The Self-Concept.Annual Review of Sociology, 8:1–33.
Viktor, G., & Schwalbe, M.L. (1983). Beyond the Looking-glass Self: Social Structure and Efficacy-Based Self-Esteem.Social Psychology Quarterly, 46:77–88.
Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc
BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education
Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.
Saul McLeod, PhD
BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester
Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.
