On This Page:ToggleShallow ProcessingDeep ProcessingKey Study Craik and Tulving (1975)Real-Life ApplicationsStrengthsWeaknesses
On This Page:Toggle
On This Page:
The levels of processing model (Craik & Lockhart, 1972) focuses on the depth of processing involved in memory, and predicts the deeper information is processed, the longer a memory trace will last.
Craik defined depth as:
“the meaningfulness extracted from the stimulus rather than in terms of the number of analyses performed upon it.” (1973, p. 48)
Unlike themulti-store model, it is a non-structured approach. The basic idea is that memory is just what happens as a result of processing information.
Therefore, instead of concentrating on the stores/structures involved (i.e. short-termmemory& long-termmemory), this theory concentrates on the processes involved in memory.
Levels of processing: The idea that the way information is encoded affects how well it is remembered. The deeper the level of processing, the easier the information is to recall.
We can process information in 3 ways:
Shallow Processing
– This takes two forms
1.Structural processing(appearance) which is when we encode only the physical qualities of something. E.g. the typeface of a word or how the letters look.
2.Phonemic processing– which is when we encode its sound.
Shallow processing only involvesmaintenance rehearsal(repetition to help usholdsomething in the STM) and leads to fairly short-term retention of information.
This is the only rehearsal type to occur within the multi-store model.
Deep Processing
3.Semantic processing, which happens when we encode the meaning of a word and relate it to similar words with similar meaning.
Deep processing involveselaboration rehearsalwhich involves a more meaningful analysis (e.g. images, thinking, associations, etc.) of information and leads to better recall.
For example, giving words a meaning or linking them with previous knowledge.
Key Study: Craik and Tulving (1975)
Aim
To investigate how deep and shallow processing affects memory recall.
Method
Participants were presented with a series of 60 words about which they had to answer one of three questions. Some questions required the participants to process the word in a deep way (e.g. semantic) and others in a shallow way (e.g. structural and phonemic). For example:
Participants were then given a long list of 180 words into which the original words had been mixed. They were asked to pick out the original words.
Results
Participants recalled more words that were semantically processed compared to phonemically and visually processed words.
Conclusion
Semantically processed words involve elaboration rehearsal and deep processing which results in more accurate recall. Phonemic and visually processed words involve shallow processing and less accurate recall.
Real-Life Applications
This explanation of memory is useful in everyday life because it highlights the way in which elaboration, which requires deeper processing of information, can aid memory. Three examples of this are.
The above examples could all be used to revise psychology using semantic processing (e.g. explaining memory models to your mum, using mind maps etc.) and should result in deeper processing through usingelaboration rehearsal.
Consequently, more information will be remembered (and recalled) and better exam results should be achieved.
Strengths
The theory is an improvement on Atkinson & Shiffrin’s account of transfer fromSTMtoLTM. For example, elaboration rehearsal leads to recall of information than just maintenance rehearsal.
The levels of processing model changed the direction of memory research. It showed that encoding was not a simple, straightforward process. This widened the focus from seeing long-term memory as a simple storage unit to seeing it as a complex processing system.
Craik and Lockhart’s ideas led to hundreds of experiments, most of which confirmed the superiourity of “deep” semantic processing for remembering information. It explains why we remember some things much better and for much longer than others.
This explanation of memory is useful in everyday life because it highlights the way in which elaboration, which requires deeper processing of information, can aid memory.
Weaknesses
Despite these strengths, there are a number of criticisms of the levels of processing theory:
Eysenck (1990) claims that the levels of processing theory describes rather than explains. Craik and Lockhart (1972) argued that deep processing leads to better long-term memory than shallow processing. However, they failed to provide a detailed account of why deep processing is so effective.
Later research indicated that processing is more complex and varied than the levels of processing theory suggests. In other words, there is more to processing than depth and elaboration.
It appears that it is the distinctiveness of the first sentence which makes it easier to remember – it’s unusual to compare a doctor to a mosquito. As a result, the sentence stands out and is more easily recalled.
Another problem is that participants typically spend a longer time processing the deeper or more difficult tasks. So, it could be that the results are partly due to more time being spent on the material.
The type of processing, the amount of effort & the length of time spent on processing tend to be confounded. Deeper processing goes with more effort and more time, so it is difficult to know which factor influences the results.
The ideas of “depth” and “elaboration” are vague and ill defined (Eysenck, 1978). As a result, they are difficult to measure. Indeed, there is no independent way of measuring the depth of processing. This can lead to a circular argument – it is predicted that deeply processed information will be remembered better, but the measure of depth of processing is how well the information is remembered.
References
Bransford, J. D., Franks, J. J., Morris, C.D., & Stein, B.S.(1979). Some general constraints on learning and memory research. In L.S. Cermak & F.I.M. Craik(Eds.),Levels of processing in human memory(pp.331–354). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum AssociatesInc.
Craik, F. I. M., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research.Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal behavior,11, 671-684.
Craik, F.I.M., & Tulving, E. (1975). Depth of processing and the retention of words in episodic memory.Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 104, 268-294.
Eysenck, M. W. & Keane, M. T. (1990).Cognitive psychology: a student’s handbook, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Ltd., Hove, UK.
Further InformationLevels of processing: Past, present . . . and future?
Further Information
Levels of processing: Past, present . . . and future?
What is the main idea of levels of processing theory?The main idea of the levels of processing theory is that the depth at which information is processed during encoding affects its subsequent recall. According to this theory, information processed at a deeper level, such as through semantic or meaningful processing, is more likely to be remembered than information processed at a shallow level, such as through superficial or sensory-based processing.What is deep processing?Deep processing refers to the meaningful and thorough encoding of information. It involves engaging with the content thoughtfully and elaborately, making connections to existing knowledge and personal experiences. Deep processing promotes better memory retention and recall than shallow, surface-level processing.How does shallow processing affect encoding?Shallow processing involves superficial or surface-level encoding of information. It typically focuses on sensory features or basic characteristics without engaging in meaningful analysis or elaboration. As a result, shallow processing leads to poorer memory encoding and weaker retention than deep processing, which involves more thorough and meaningful engagement with the information.
What is the main idea of levels of processing theory?The main idea of the levels of processing theory is that the depth at which information is processed during encoding affects its subsequent recall. According to this theory, information processed at a deeper level, such as through semantic or meaningful processing, is more likely to be remembered than information processed at a shallow level, such as through superficial or sensory-based processing.
What is the main idea of levels of processing theory?
The main idea of the levels of processing theory is that the depth at which information is processed during encoding affects its subsequent recall. According to this theory, information processed at a deeper level, such as through semantic or meaningful processing, is more likely to be remembered than information processed at a shallow level, such as through superficial or sensory-based processing.
What is deep processing?Deep processing refers to the meaningful and thorough encoding of information. It involves engaging with the content thoughtfully and elaborately, making connections to existing knowledge and personal experiences. Deep processing promotes better memory retention and recall than shallow, surface-level processing.
What is deep processing?
Deep processing refers to the meaningful and thorough encoding of information. It involves engaging with the content thoughtfully and elaborately, making connections to existing knowledge and personal experiences. Deep processing promotes better memory retention and recall than shallow, surface-level processing.
How does shallow processing affect encoding?Shallow processing involves superficial or surface-level encoding of information. It typically focuses on sensory features or basic characteristics without engaging in meaningful analysis or elaboration. As a result, shallow processing leads to poorer memory encoding and weaker retention than deep processing, which involves more thorough and meaningful engagement with the information.
How does shallow processing affect encoding?
Shallow processing involves superficial or surface-level encoding of information. It typically focuses on sensory features or basic characteristics without engaging in meaningful analysis or elaboration. As a result, shallow processing leads to poorer memory encoding and weaker retention than deep processing, which involves more thorough and meaningful engagement with the information.
Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc
BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education
Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.
Saul McLeod, PhD
BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester
Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.
