On This Page:ToggleEnactive ModeIconic ModeSymbolic ModeReadinessThe Spiral CurriculumDiscovery LearningScaffolding Theory
On This Page:Toggle
On This Page:
Jerome Bruner believed that children construct knowledge and meaning through active experience with the world around them. He emphasized the role of culture and language in cognitive development, which occurs in a spiral fashion with children revisiting basic concepts at increasing levels of complexity and abstraction.
Bruner’s Ideas
Three Modes of Representation
Modes of representation are how information or knowledge is stored and encoded in memory.
Rather than neatage-related stages(like Piaget), the modes of representation are integrated and only loosely sequential as they “translate” into each other.
Bruner (1966) was concerned with how knowledge is represented and organized through different modes of thinking (or representation).
In his research on the cognitive development of children, Jerome Bruner proposed three modes of representation:
Bruner’sconstructivist theorysuggests it is effective when faced with new material to follow a progression from enactive to iconic to symbolic representation; this holds true even for adult learners.
Bruner’s work also suggests that a learner even of a very young age is capable of learning any material so long as the instruction is organized appropriately, in sharp contrast to the beliefs of Piaget and other stage theorists.
Enactive Mode (0-1 year)
In theenactive mode, knowledge is stored primarily in the form of motor responses. This mode is used within the first year of life (corresponding withPiaget’s sensorimotor stage).
And this is not just limited to children. Many adults can perform a variety of motor tasks (typing, sewing a shirt, operating a lawn mower) that they would find difficult to describe in iconic (picture) or symbolic (word) form.
This mode continues later in many physical activities, such as learning to ride a bike.
Iconic Mode (1-6 years)
Information is stored assensory images(icons), usually visual ones, like pictures in the mind. For some, this is conscious; others say they don’t experience it.
This may explain why, when we are learning a new subject, it is often helpful to have diagrams or illustrations to accompany the verbal information.
Thinking is also based on using other mental images (icons), such as hearing, smell or touch.
Symbolic Mode (7 years onwards)
This develops last. In thesymbolic stage, knowledge is stored primarily as language, mathematical symbols, or in other symbol systems.
This mode is acquired around six to seven years old (corresponding toPiaget’s concrete operational stage).
In the symbolic stage, knowledge is stored primarily as words, mathematical symbols, or other symbol systems, such as music.
According to Bruner’s taxonomy, these differ from icons in that symbols are “arbitrary.” For example, the word “beauty” is an arbitrary designation for the idea of beauty in that the word itself is no more inherently beautiful than any other word.
The Importance of Language
Language is important for the increased ability to deal with abstract concepts.
Bruner argues that language can code stimuli and free an individual from the constraints of dealing only with appearances, to provide a more complex yet flexible cognition.
The use of words can aid the development of the concepts they represent and can remove the constraints of the “here & now” concept.
Bruner views the infant as an intelligent & active problem solver from birth, with intellectual abilities basically similar to those of the mature adult.
Educational Implications
Education should aim to create autonomous learners (i.e., learning to learn).
For Bruner (1961), the purpose of education is not to impart knowledge, but instead to facilitate a child’s thinking and problem-solving skills which can then be transferred to a range of situations. Specifically, education should also develop symbolic thinking in children.
In 1960 Bruner’s text,The Process of Educationwas published. The main premise of Bruner’s text was that students are active learners who construct their own knowledge.
Readiness
Bruner (1960) opposedPiaget’s notion of readiness. He argued that schools waste time trying to match the complexity of subject material to a child’s cognitive stage of development.
The Spiral Curriculum
Bruner (1960) adopts a different view and believes a child (of any age) is capable of understanding complex information:
“We begin with the hypothesis that any subject can be taught effectively in some intellectually honest form to any child at any stage of development.” (p. 33)
Bruner (1960) explained how this was possible through the concept of the spiral curriculum. This involved information being structured so that complex ideas can be taught at a simplified level first, and then re-visited at more complex levels later on.
The underlying principle in this is that the student should review particular concepts at over and over again during their educative experience; each time building and their understanding and requiring more sophisticated cognitive strategies (and thus increase the sophistication of their understanding).
Bruner argues that, as children age, they are capable of increasingly complex modes of representation (basically, ways of thinking) – and the spiral curriculum should be sensitive to this development;
Discovery Learning Theory
Bruner (1960) developed the concept of Discovery Learning – arguing that students should “not be presented with the subject matter in its final form, but rather are required to organize it themselves…[requiring them] to discover for themselves relationships that exist among items of information”.
The concept of discovery learning implies that students construct their own knowledge for themselves (also known as aconstructivist approach).
The result is an extremely active form of learning, in which the students are always engaged in tasks, finding patterns or solving puzzles – and in which they constantly need to exercise their existingschemata, reorganizing and amending these concepts to address the challenges of the task.
To do this a teacher must give students the information they need, but without organizing for them. The use of the spiral curriculum can aid the process ofdiscovery learning.
For example, in teaching a particular concept, the teacher should present the set of instances that will best help learners develop an appropriate model of the concept. The teacher should also model the inquiry process. Bruner would likely not contend that all learning should be through discovery.
For example, it seems pointless to have children “discover” the names of the U.S. Presidents, or important dates in history.
Bruner’s theory is probably clearest when illustrated with practical examples. The instinctive response of a teacher to the task of helping a primary-school child understand the concept of odd and even numbers, for instance, would be to explain the difference to them.
Discovery is not just an instructional technique, but an important learning outcome in itself. Schools should help learners develop their own ability to find the “recurrent regularities” in their environment.
Bruner would likely not contend that all learning should be through discovery. For example, it seems pointless to have children “discover” the names of the U.S. Presidents, or important dates in history.
Scaffolding Theory
On the surface, Bruner’s emphasis on the learner discovering subject content for themselves seemingly absolves the teacher of a great deal of work.
In practice, however, his model requires the teacher to be actively involved in lessons; providingcognitive scaffoldingwhich will facilitate learning on the part of the student.
On the one hand, this involves the selection and design of appropriate stimulus materials and activities which the student can understand and complete – however Bruner also advocates that the teacher should circulate the classroom and work with individual students, performing six core “functions” (Wood, Bruner and Ross: 1976):
In this context, Bruner’s model might be better described as guided discovery learning; as the teacher is vital in ensuring that the acquisition of new concepts and processes is successful.
Bruner and Vygotsky
Both Bruner andVygotskyemphasize a child’s environment, especially the social environment, more than Piaget did. Both agree that adults should play an active role in assisting the child’s learning.
Bruner, like Vygotsky, emphasized the social nature of learning, citing that other people should help a child develop skills through the process of scaffolding.
“[Scaffolding] refers to the steps taken to reduce the degrees of freedom in carrying out some task so that the child can concentrate on the difficult skill she is in the process of acquiring” (Bruner, 1978, p. 19).
He was especially interested in the characteristics of people whom he considered to have achieved their potential as individuals.
The term scaffolding first appeared in the literature when Wood, Bruner, and Ross described how tutors” interacted with a preschooler to help them solve a block reconstruction problem (Wood et al., 1976).
The concept of scaffolding is very similar to Vygotsky’s notion of thezone of proximal development, and it’s not uncommon for the terms to be used interchangeably.
Scaffolding involves helpful, structured interaction between an adult and a child with the aim of helping the child achieve a specific goal.
Bruner and Piaget
There are similarities betweenPiagetand Bruner, but a significant difference is that Bruner’s modes are not related in terms of which presuppose the one that precedes it. While sometimes one mode may dominate in usage, they coexist.
Bruner states that the level of intellectual development determines the extent to which the child has been given appropriate instruction together with practice or experience.
Although Bruner proposes stages of cognitive development, he doesn’t see them as representing different separate modes of thought at different points of development (like Piaget).
Instead, he sees a gradual development of cognitive skills and techniques into more integrated “adult” cognitive techniques.
Bruner views symbolic representation as crucial for cognitive development, and since language is our primary means of symbolizing the world, he attaches great importance to language in determining cognitive development.
AgreeChildren are innately PRE-ADAPTED to learningChildren have a NATURAL CURIOSITYChildren’s COGNITIVE STRUCTURES develop over timeChildren are ACTIVE participants in the learning processCognitive development entails the acquisition of SYMBOLSDisagreeSocial factors, particularly language, were important for cognitive growth. These underpin the concept of ‘scaffolding’.The development of LANGUAGE is a cause not a consequence of cognitive developmentYou can SPEED-UP cognitive development. You don’t have to wait for the child to be readyThe involvement of ADULTS and MORE KNOWLEDGEABLE PEERS makes a big differenceThe involvement of ADULTS and MORE KNOWLEDGEABLE PEERS makes a big difference
AgreeChildren are innately PRE-ADAPTED to learningChildren have a NATURAL CURIOSITYChildren’s COGNITIVE STRUCTURES develop over timeChildren are ACTIVE participants in the learning processCognitive development entails the acquisition of SYMBOLS
Children are innately PRE-ADAPTED to learningChildren have a NATURAL CURIOSITYChildren’s COGNITIVE STRUCTURES develop over timeChildren are ACTIVE participants in the learning processCognitive development entails the acquisition of SYMBOLS
DisagreeSocial factors, particularly language, were important for cognitive growth. These underpin the concept of ‘scaffolding’.The development of LANGUAGE is a cause not a consequence of cognitive developmentYou can SPEED-UP cognitive development. You don’t have to wait for the child to be readyThe involvement of ADULTS and MORE KNOWLEDGEABLE PEERS makes a big differenceThe involvement of ADULTS and MORE KNOWLEDGEABLE PEERS makes a big difference
Social factors, particularly language, were important for cognitive growth. These underpin the concept of ‘scaffolding’.The development of LANGUAGE is a cause not a consequence of cognitive developmentYou can SPEED-UP cognitive development. You don’t have to wait for the child to be readyThe involvement of ADULTS and MORE KNOWLEDGEABLE PEERS makes a big differenceThe involvement of ADULTS and MORE KNOWLEDGEABLE PEERS makes a big difference
References
Bruner, J. S. (1957).Going beyond the information given.New York: Norton.
Bruner, J. S. (1960).The Process of education.Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Bruner, J. S. (1961). The act of discovery.Harvard Educational Review, 31, 21-32.
Bruner, J. S. (1966).Toward a theory of instruction, Cambridge, Mass.: Belkapp Press.
Bruner, J. S. (1973).The relevance of education. New York: Norton.
Bruner, J. S. (1978). The role of dialogue in language acquisition. In A. Sinclair, R., J. Jarvelle, and W. J.M. Levelt (eds.)The Child’s Concept of Language.New York: Springer-Verlag.
Wood, D. J., Bruner, J. S., & Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving.Journal of Child Psychiatry and Psychology, 17(2), 89-100.
Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc
BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education
Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.
Saul McLeod, PhD
BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester
Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.
