On This Page:ToggleGender and Culture in PsychologyFree Will & DeterminismNature & NurtureReductionism & HolismIdiographic & Nomothetic ApproachesEthical Issues in Psychology & Socially Sensitive Research
On This Page:Toggle
On This Page:
What do the examiners look for?
Accurate and detailed knowledgeClear, coherent, and focused answersEffective use of terminology (use the “technical terms”)In application questions, examiners look for “effective application to the scenario,” which means that you need to describe the theory and explain the scenario using the theory making the links between the two very clear.If there is more than one individual in the scenario you must mention all of the characters to get to the top band.Difference between AS and A level answersThe descriptions follow the same criteria; however, you have to use the issues and debates effectively in your answers. “Effectively” means that it needs to be clearly linked and explained in the context of the answer.Read the model answers to get a clearer idea of what is needed.Gender and Culture in PsychologyGender Bias
In application questions, examiners look for “effective application to the scenario,” which means that you need to describe the theory and explain the scenario using the theory making the links between the two very clear.
If there is more than one individual in the scenario you must mention all of the characters to get to the top band.
The descriptions follow the same criteria; however, you have to use the issues and debates effectively in your answers. “Effectively” means that it needs to be clearly linked and explained in the context of the answer.
Read the model answers to get a clearer idea of what is needed.
Gender and Culture in Psychology
Gender Bias
AO1
Gender bias results when one gender is treated less favorably than the other, often referred to as sexism, and it has a range of consequences, including:
Avoiding gender bias does not mean pretending that men and women are the same.
There are three main types of gender bias:
Alpha bias– this occurs when the differences between men and women are exaggerated. Therefore, stereotypically male and female characteristics may be emphasized.
Beta bias-this occurs when the differences between men and women are minimized. This often happens when findings obtained from men are applied to women without additional validation.
Androcentrism– taking male thinking/behavior as normal, regarding female thinking/behavior as deviant, inferior, abnormal, or ‘other’ when it is different.
AO3
Positive Consequences of Gender Bias
Alpha Bias:
Beta Bias:
Negative Consequences of Gender Bias
Consequences of Gender Bias
Kitzinger (1998) argues that questions about sex differences aren’t just scientific questions – they’re also political (women have the same rights as men). So gender differences are distorted to maintain the status quo of male power.
Feminists argue that although gender differences are minimal or non-existent, they are used against women to maintain male power.
Judgments about an individual women’s ability are made on the basis of average differences between the sexes or biased sex-role stereotypes, and this also had the effect of lowering women’s self-esteem; making them, rather than men, think they have to improve themselves (Tavris, 1993).
Examples of Gender Bias in ResearchAO3
Kohlberg & Moral DevelopmentKohlberg based his stages ofmoral developmentaround male moral reasoning and had an all-male sample. He then inappropriately generalized his findings to women (beta bias) and also claimed women generally reached the lower level of moral development (androcentrism).Carol Gilligan highlighted the gender bias inherent in Kohlberg’s work and suggested women make moral decisions in a different way than men (care ethic vs. justice ethic).However, her research is arguably, also (alpha) biased, as male and female moral reasoning is more similar than her work suggests.
Kohlberg & Moral Development
Kohlberg based his stages ofmoral developmentaround male moral reasoning and had an all-male sample. He then inappropriately generalized his findings to women (beta bias) and also claimed women generally reached the lower level of moral development (androcentrism).Carol Gilligan highlighted the gender bias inherent in Kohlberg’s work and suggested women make moral decisions in a different way than men (care ethic vs. justice ethic).However, her research is arguably, also (alpha) biased, as male and female moral reasoning is more similar than her work suggests.
Kohlberg based his stages ofmoral developmentaround male moral reasoning and had an all-male sample. He then inappropriately generalized his findings to women (beta bias) and also claimed women generally reached the lower level of moral development (androcentrism).
Carol Gilligan highlighted the gender bias inherent in Kohlberg’s work and suggested women make moral decisions in a different way than men (care ethic vs. justice ethic).
However, her research is arguably, also (alpha) biased, as male and female moral reasoning is more similar than her work suggests.
Freud & Psychosexual Development
Freud’s ideasare seen as inherently gender biased, but it must be remembered that he was a product of his time. He saw ‘Biology as destiny’ and women’s roles as prescribed & predetermined.
But Freud’s ideas had serious consequences/implications. They reinforced stereotypes, e.g., of women’s moral Inferiority, treated deviations from traditional sex-role behavior as pathological (career ambition = penis envy), and are clearly androcentric (phallocentric).
Biomedical Theories of AbnormalityIn women, mental illness, especially depression, is much more likely to be explained in terms of neurochemical/hormonal processes rather than other possible explanations, such as social or environmental (e.g., domestic violence, unpaid labor, discrimination).The old joke ‘Is it your hormones, love?’ is no joke for mentally ill women!
Biomedical Theories of Abnormality
In women, mental illness, especially depression, is much more likely to be explained in terms of neurochemical/hormonal processes rather than other possible explanations, such as social or environmental (e.g., domestic violence, unpaid labor, discrimination).The old joke ‘Is it your hormones, love?’ is no joke for mentally ill women!
In women, mental illness, especially depression, is much more likely to be explained in terms of neurochemical/hormonal processes rather than other possible explanations, such as social or environmental (e.g., domestic violence, unpaid labor, discrimination).
The old joke ‘Is it your hormones, love?’ is no joke for mentally ill women!
Gender Bias in the Research ProcessAO1
Institutional sexismAlthough female psychology students outnumber males, at a senior teaching and research levelin universities, men dominate. Men predominate at the senior researcher level.The research agenda follows male concerns, female concerns may be marginalized or ignored.
Institutional sexism
Although female psychology students outnumber males, at a senior teaching and research levelin universities, men dominate. Men predominate at the senior researcher level.The research agenda follows male concerns, female concerns may be marginalized or ignored.
Use of standardized procedures in research studies
Dissemination of research results through academic journalsPublishing bias towards positive results.Research that finds gender differences more likely to get published than that which doesn’t.Exaggerates the extent of gender differences.
Dissemination of research results through academic journals
Publishing bias towards positive results.Research that finds gender differences more likely to get published than that which doesn’t.Exaggerates the extent of gender differences.
Reducing Gender Bias in Psychology(AO3)
Equal opportunity legislation and feminist psychology have performed the valuable functions of reducing institutionalized gender bias and drawing attention to sources of bias and under-researched areas in psychology like childcare, sexual abuse, dual burden working, and prostitution.
The Feminist perspective
Learning CheckAO2
This activity will help you to:
Below are two examples of research that could be considered gender biased. Working in pairs or small groups, you need to do the following:
Identify aspects of the research that could be considered gender biased
Identify and explain the type of gender bias that is present
Suggest the impact that these research examples could have on society
You could look, for example, at how the research might uphold or reinforce gender stereotypes or be used to disempower women in society.
The Psychodynamic View of Personality and Moral Development
Freud and many of his followers believed that biological differences between men and women had major consequences for psychological development. In their view, ‘biology is destiny.’
Freud believed that gender divergence begins at the onset of the phallic stage, where the girl realizes that she has no penis, and starts to feel inferiour to boys (penis envy).
Penis envy becomes a major driving force in the girl’s mental life and needs to be successfully sublimated into a desire for a husband and children if it is not to become pathological.
In boys, immoral behavior is regulated through the mechanism of castration anxiety – men obey the rules because of an unconscious fear that their father will take away their penis.
In the Freudian view, the girl has already had to accept her castration as a fait accompli, which raises important questions about the relative moral strength of men and women.
The Biological View of Mental IllnessThe biomedical view of mental illness, which approaches behavioral and psychological abnormality as a manifestation of underlying pathological processes on the biological level, dominates the discussion of mental illness.In thebiomedical view, illnesses such as depression can be explained in terms of chemical imbalances causing malfunction in the parts of the brain associated with emotion.When explaining why twice as many women as men are diagnosed with depression, adherents of the biomedical view tend to suggest that this is due to hormonal differences and point to the existence of, for example, post-natal depression to show how fluctuations in female sex hormones can lead to abnormalities of mood.Similarly, sex differences in hormonal processes can be used to explain the existence of disorders that are ‘gender bound,’ such as pre-menstrual syndrome.Culture Bias
The Biological View of Mental Illness
The biomedical view of mental illness, which approaches behavioral and psychological abnormality as a manifestation of underlying pathological processes on the biological level, dominates the discussion of mental illness.In thebiomedical view, illnesses such as depression can be explained in terms of chemical imbalances causing malfunction in the parts of the brain associated with emotion.When explaining why twice as many women as men are diagnosed with depression, adherents of the biomedical view tend to suggest that this is due to hormonal differences and point to the existence of, for example, post-natal depression to show how fluctuations in female sex hormones can lead to abnormalities of mood.Similarly, sex differences in hormonal processes can be used to explain the existence of disorders that are ‘gender bound,’ such as pre-menstrual syndrome.Culture Bias
The biomedical view of mental illness, which approaches behavioral and psychological abnormality as a manifestation of underlying pathological processes on the biological level, dominates the discussion of mental illness.
In thebiomedical view, illnesses such as depression can be explained in terms of chemical imbalances causing malfunction in the parts of the brain associated with emotion.
When explaining why twice as many women as men are diagnosed with depression, adherents of the biomedical view tend to suggest that this is due to hormonal differences and point to the existence of, for example, post-natal depression to show how fluctuations in female sex hormones can lead to abnormalities of mood.
Similarly, sex differences in hormonal processes can be used to explain the existence of disorders that are ‘gender bound,’ such as pre-menstrual syndrome.
Culture Bias
Cultures may differ from one another in many ways, so the findings of psychological research conducted in one culture may not apply directly to another.
General Background
However, this has not always been the case. Psychology is a discipline that evolved within a very specific cultural context.
Psychology is predominantly a white, Euro-American enterprise: – (i) 64% of psychological researchers are from the US; (ii) in some texts, 90% of studies have US Participants; (iii) samples are predominantly white middle class.
Consequently, it has incorporated a particular worldview (that of the industrialized West) into the ways it tries to understand people. This can have consequences. For example:
We will be looking at how cultural bias can affect psychological theories and research studies and the sorts of things psychologists can do to avoid the worst effects of cultural bias.
Types of Theoretical Constructions for Understanding Cultural BiasAO1
Emics
Anemic constructis one that is applied only to one cultural group, so they vary from place to place (differences between cultures).
Cultural biascan occur when a researcher assumes that an emic construct (behavior specific to a single culture) is actually etic (behavior universal to all cultures).
For example, emic constructs are likely to be ignored or misinterpreted as researchers from another culture may not be sensitive to local emics. Their own cultural ‘filters’ may prevent them from detecting them or appreciating their significance.
EticsAnetic constructis a theoretical idea that is assumed to apply in all cultural groups. Therefore, etic constructs are considered universal to all people and are factors that hold across all cultures (similarities between cultures).Etic constructs assume that most human behavior is common to humans but that cultural factors influence the development or display of this behavior.Cultural bias can occur when emics and etics get mistaken for each other.Making the assumption that behaviors are universal across cultures can lead toimposed etics, where a construct from one culture is applied inappropriately to another. For example, although basic human emotional facial expressions are universal, there can be subtle cultural variations in these.Bias can occur when emics and etics get mistaken for each other.
Etics
Anetic constructis a theoretical idea that is assumed to apply in all cultural groups. Therefore, etic constructs are considered universal to all people and are factors that hold across all cultures (similarities between cultures).Etic constructs assume that most human behavior is common to humans but that cultural factors influence the development or display of this behavior.Cultural bias can occur when emics and etics get mistaken for each other.Making the assumption that behaviors are universal across cultures can lead toimposed etics, where a construct from one culture is applied inappropriately to another. For example, although basic human emotional facial expressions are universal, there can be subtle cultural variations in these.Bias can occur when emics and etics get mistaken for each other.
Anetic constructis a theoretical idea that is assumed to apply in all cultural groups. Therefore, etic constructs are considered universal to all people and are factors that hold across all cultures (similarities between cultures).
Etic constructs assume that most human behavior is common to humans but that cultural factors influence the development or display of this behavior.
Cultural bias can occur when emics and etics get mistaken for each other.
Making the assumption that behaviors are universal across cultures can lead toimposed etics, where a construct from one culture is applied inappropriately to another. For example, although basic human emotional facial expressions are universal, there can be subtle cultural variations in these.
Bias can occur when emics and etics get mistaken for each other.
EthnocentrismEthnocentrismoccurs when a researcher assumes that their own culturally specific practices or ideas are ‘natural’ or ‘right’.The individual uses their own ethnic group to evaluate and make judgments about other individuals from other ethnic groups. Research that is ‘centered’ around one cultural group is called ‘ethnocentric.’When other cultures are observed to differ from the researcher’s own, they may be regarded in a negative light, e.g., ‘primitive,’ ‘degenerate,’ ‘unsophisticated,’ ‘undeveloped,’ etc.This becomes racism when other cultures are denigrated, or their traditions are regarded as irrelevant, etc.The antidote to ethnocentrism is cultural relativism, which is an approach to treating each culture as unique and worthy of study.
Ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrismoccurs when a researcher assumes that their own culturally specific practices or ideas are ‘natural’ or ‘right’.The individual uses their own ethnic group to evaluate and make judgments about other individuals from other ethnic groups. Research that is ‘centered’ around one cultural group is called ‘ethnocentric.’When other cultures are observed to differ from the researcher’s own, they may be regarded in a negative light, e.g., ‘primitive,’ ‘degenerate,’ ‘unsophisticated,’ ‘undeveloped,’ etc.This becomes racism when other cultures are denigrated, or their traditions are regarded as irrelevant, etc.The antidote to ethnocentrism is cultural relativism, which is an approach to treating each culture as unique and worthy of study.
Ethnocentrismoccurs when a researcher assumes that their own culturally specific practices or ideas are ‘natural’ or ‘right’.
The individual uses their own ethnic group to evaluate and make judgments about other individuals from other ethnic groups. Research that is ‘centered’ around one cultural group is called ‘ethnocentric.’
When other cultures are observed to differ from the researcher’s own, they may be regarded in a negative light, e.g., ‘primitive,’ ‘degenerate,’ ‘unsophisticated,’ ‘undeveloped,’ etc.
This becomes racism when other cultures are denigrated, or their traditions are regarded as irrelevant, etc.
The antidote to ethnocentrism is cultural relativism, which is an approach to treating each culture as unique and worthy of study.
Cultural Relativism
Cultural relativismis the principle of regarding the beliefs, values, and practices of a culture from the viewpoint of that culture itself.
Culturally Biased ResearchAO3
Ainsworth’s Strange Situation for AttachmentThe strange situation procedureis not appropriate for assessing children from non-US or UK populations as it is based on Western childrearing ideals (i.e., ethnocentric).The original study only used American, middle-class, white, home-reared infants and mothers; therefore, the generalisability of the findings could be questioned, as well as whether this procedure would be valid for other cultures too.Cultural differences in child-rearing styles make results liable to misinterpretation, e.g., German or Japanese samples.Takashi (1990) aimed to see whether the strange situation is a valid procedure for cultures other than the original. Takashi found no children in the avoidant-insecure stage.This could be explained in cultural terms as Japanese children are taught that such behavior is impolite, and they would be actively discouraged from displaying it. Also, because Japanese children experience much less separation, the SSC was more than mildly stressful.
Ainsworth’s Strange Situation for Attachment
The strange situation procedureis not appropriate for assessing children from non-US or UK populations as it is based on Western childrearing ideals (i.e., ethnocentric).The original study only used American, middle-class, white, home-reared infants and mothers; therefore, the generalisability of the findings could be questioned, as well as whether this procedure would be valid for other cultures too.Cultural differences in child-rearing styles make results liable to misinterpretation, e.g., German or Japanese samples.Takashi (1990) aimed to see whether the strange situation is a valid procedure for cultures other than the original. Takashi found no children in the avoidant-insecure stage.This could be explained in cultural terms as Japanese children are taught that such behavior is impolite, and they would be actively discouraged from displaying it. Also, because Japanese children experience much less separation, the SSC was more than mildly stressful.
The strange situation procedureis not appropriate for assessing children from non-US or UK populations as it is based on Western childrearing ideals (i.e., ethnocentric).
The original study only used American, middle-class, white, home-reared infants and mothers; therefore, the generalisability of the findings could be questioned, as well as whether this procedure would be valid for other cultures too.
Cultural differences in child-rearing styles make results liable to misinterpretation, e.g., German or Japanese samples.
Takashi (1990) aimed to see whether the strange situation is a valid procedure for cultures other than the original. Takashi found no children in the avoidant-insecure stage.
This could be explained in cultural terms as Japanese children are taught that such behavior is impolite, and they would be actively discouraged from displaying it. Also, because Japanese children experience much less separation, the SSC was more than mildly stressful.
IQ testing and Research (e.g., Eysenck)
An example of an etic approach that produces bias might be the imposition of IQ tests designed within one culture on another culture. If a test is designed to measure a European person’s understanding ofwhat intelligence is, it may not be a valid measurement of the intelligence of people from other continents.
IQ tests developed in the West contain embedded assumptions about intelligence, but what counts as ‘intelligent’ behavior varies from culture to culture.
Task: Try theChittling IQ Test
Consequences of Culture BiasAO3
Nobles (1976) argues that western psychology has been a tool of oppression and dominance. Cultural bias has also made it difficult for psychologists to separate the behavior they have observed from the context in which they observed it.
Reducing Culture BiasAO3
Equal opportunity legislation aims to rid psychology of cultural bias and racism, but we must be aware that merely swapping old, overt racism for new, more subtle forms of racism (Howitt and Owusu-Bempah, 1994).
Free Will & Determinism
The free will/determinism debate revolves around the extent to which our behavior is the result of forces over which we have no control or whether people are able to decide for themselves whether to act or behave in a certain way.
Free Will
Free Will suggests that we all have a choice and can control and choose our own behavior. This approach is all about personal responsibility and plays a central role in Humanist Psychology.
By arguing that humans can make free choices, the free will approach is quite the opposite of the deterministic one. Psychologists who take the free will view suggest that determinism removes freedom and dignity and devalues human behavior.
Strengths (AO3)It emphasizes the importance of the individual and studying individual differences.It fits society’s view of personal responsibility, e.g., if you break the law, you should be punished.The idea ofself-efficacyis useful in therapies as it makes them more effective.
Strengths (AO3)
It emphasizes the importance of the individual and studying individual differences.It fits society’s view of personal responsibility, e.g., if you break the law, you should be punished.The idea ofself-efficacyis useful in therapies as it makes them more effective.
Limitations (AO3)Free will is subjective, and some argue it doesn’t exist.It is impossible to scientifically test the concept of free will.Few people would agree that behavior is always completely under the control of the individual.Determinism
Limitations (AO3)
Free will is subjective, and some argue it doesn’t exist.It is impossible to scientifically test the concept of free will.Few people would agree that behavior is always completely under the control of the individual.Determinism
Determinism
The determinist approach proposes that all behavior is determined and thus predictable. Some approaches in psychology see the source of this determinism as being outside the individual, a position known as environmental determinism.
Others see it from coming inside, i.e., in the form of unconscious motivation or genetic determinism – biological determinism.
•Biological (Internal) Determinism: Our biological systems, such as the nervous system, govern our behavior.
For example, a high IQ may be related to the IGF2R gene (Chorney et al. 1998).
•Psychic (Internal) Determinism: Freud believed childhood experiences and unconscious motivations governed behavior.
Freud thought that free will was an illusion because he felt that the causes of our behavior are unconscious and still predictable.
There are different levels of determinism.
Hard DeterminismHard Determinism sees free will as an illusion and believes that every event and action has a cause.
Hard Determinism
Hard Determinism sees free will as an illusion and believes that every event and action has a cause.
Soft Determinism
Limitations (AO3)Determinism is reductionist.Does not account for individual differences. By creating general laws of behavior, deterministic psychology underestimates the uniqueness of human beings and their freedom to choose their own destiny.Hard determinism suggests criminals cannot be held accountable for their actions. Deterministic explanations for behavior reduce individual responsibility. A person arrested for a violent attack, for example, might plead that they were not responsible for their behavior – it was due to their upbringing, a bang on the head they received earlier in life, recent relationship stresses, or a psychiatric problem. In other words, their behavior was determined.
Determinism is reductionist.Does not account for individual differences. By creating general laws of behavior, deterministic psychology underestimates the uniqueness of human beings and their freedom to choose their own destiny.Hard determinism suggests criminals cannot be held accountable for their actions. Deterministic explanations for behavior reduce individual responsibility. A person arrested for a violent attack, for example, might plead that they were not responsible for their behavior – it was due to their upbringing, a bang on the head they received earlier in life, recent relationship stresses, or a psychiatric problem. In other words, their behavior was determined.
Essay Question: – Discussfree will & determinismin psychology (16 marks)
Nature & Nurture
Nature
In addition, some genetic characteristics only appear later in development as a result of the process of maturation. Supporters of the nature view have been called ‘nativists.’
Evolutionary explanations of human behavior exemplify the nature approach in psychology. The main assumption underlying this approach is that any particular behavior has evolved because of its survival value.
Evolutionary psychologists assume that behavior is a product of natural selection. Interpersonal attraction can, for example, be explained as a consequence of sexual selection.
Men and women select partners who enhance their productive success, judging this in terms of traits that ‘advertise’ reproductive fitness, such as signs of healthiness (white teeth) or resources.
Physiological psychology is also based on the assumption that behavior can be explained in terms of genetically programmed systems.
Nurture
The behaviorist approach is the clearest example of the nurture position in psychology, which assumes that all behavior is learned through the environment. The best-known example is the social learning explanation of aggression using the Bobo doll.
SLT proposes that much of what we learn is through observation and vicarious reinforcement. E.g., Bandura demonstrated this in his Bobo doll experiments. He found that children who watched an adult role model being rewarded for aggression toward an inflatable doll tended to imitate that behavior when later on their own with a Bobo doll.
Another assumption of the nurture approach is that there is a double bind hypothesis that explains schizophrenia. They suggest that schizophrenia develops because children receive contradictory messages from their parents.
Strengths (AO3)Empirical evidence shows that behavior is learned and can be modified through conditioning.
Empirical evidence shows that behavior is learned and can be modified through conditioning.
Limitations (AO3)Behaviorist accounts are all in terms of learning, but even learning itself has a genetic basis. For example, research has found that mutant flies missing a crucial gene cannot be conditioned (Quinn et al., 1979).
Behaviorist accounts are all in terms of learning, but even learning itself has a genetic basis. For example, research has found that mutant flies missing a crucial gene cannot be conditioned (Quinn et al., 1979).
Conclusion(AO3)
Instead of defending extremenature or nurture views, most psychological researchers are now interested in investigating the ways in which nature and nurture interact. It is limiting to describe behavior solely in terms of either nature or nurture and attempts to do this underestimate the complexity of human behavior.
For example, in psychopathology, this means that both a genetic predisposition and an appropriate environmental trigger are required for a mental disorder to develop. Therefore, it makes more sense to say that the difference between two people’s behavior is mostly due to hereditary factors or mostly due to environmental factors.
TheDiathesis-stress modelof Schizophrenia suggests that although people may inherit a predisposition to Schizophrenia, some sort of environmental stressor is required in order to develop the disease.
This explains why Schizophrenia happens in the late teens or early adulthood, times of considerable upheaval and stress in people’s lives, e.g., leaving home, starting work, forging new relationships, etc.
Essay Question: – Describe & evaluate the nature-nurture debate in psychology (16 marks)
Reductionism & Holism
Holism
Holismis often referred to asGestalt psychology. It argues that behavior cannot be understood in terms of the components that make them up. This is commonly described as ‘the whole being greater than the sum of its parts.’
Psychologists study the whole person to gain an understanding of all the factors that might influence behavior. Holism uses several levels of explanation, including biological, environmental, and social factors.
Holistic approaches include Humanism, Social, and Gestalt psychology and make use of the case study method. Jahoda’s six elements of Optimal Living are an example of a holistic approach to defining abnormality.
Imagine you were asked to make a cake.
If I simply told you that you needed 3 eggs, 75 grams of sugar, and 75 grams of self-raising.Would that be enough information for you to make a sponge cake? What else would you need to know?
In this way, a cake is more than the sum of its parts. Simply putting all the ingredients into a tin and sticking them in the oven would not result in a sponge cake!
Strengths (AO3)Looks at everything that may impact behavior.Does not ignore the complexity of behavior.Integrates different components of behavior in order to understand the person as a whole.It can be higher in ecological validity.
Looks at everything that may impact behavior.Does not ignore the complexity of behavior.Integrates different components of behavior in order to understand the person as a whole.It can be higher in ecological validity.
Limitations (AO3)Over-complicate behaviors that may have simpler explanations (Occam’s Razor).Does not lend itself to the scientific method and empirical testing.Makes it hard to determine cause and effect.Neglects the importance of biological explanations.Almost impossible to study all the factors that influence complex human behaviorsReductionism
Over-complicate behaviors that may have simpler explanations (Occam’s Razor).Does not lend itself to the scientific method and empirical testing.Makes it hard to determine cause and effect.Neglects the importance of biological explanations.Almost impossible to study all the factors that influence complex human behaviorsReductionism
Reductionism
In psychology, the term is most appropriately applied to biological explanations (e.g., genetics, neurotransmitters, hormones) of complex human behaviors such as schizophrenia, gender, and aggression.
Such reductionist explanations can be legitimately criticized as ignoring psychological, social, and cultural factors.
Cognitive psychology, with its use of the computer analogy, reduces behavior to the level of a machine, mechanistic reductionism.
Behaviorist psychology sees behavior in terms of simple stimulus/response relationships. And finally, the psychodynamic perspective reduces behavior to unconscious motivation and early childhood experiences.
Strengths (AO3)The use of a reductionist approach to behavior can be a useful one in allowing scientific study to be carried out. The scientific study requires the isolation of variables to make it possible to identify the causes of behavior.For example, research into the genetic basis of mental disorders has enabled researchers to identify specific genes believed to be responsible for schizophrenia. This way, a reductionist approach enables the scientific causes of behavior to be identified and advances the possibility of scientific study.A reductionist approach to studying mental disorders has led to the development of effective chemical treatments
The use of a reductionist approach to behavior can be a useful one in allowing scientific study to be carried out. The scientific study requires the isolation of variables to make it possible to identify the causes of behavior.For example, research into the genetic basis of mental disorders has enabled researchers to identify specific genes believed to be responsible for schizophrenia. This way, a reductionist approach enables the scientific causes of behavior to be identified and advances the possibility of scientific study.A reductionist approach to studying mental disorders has led to the development of effective chemical treatments
Limitations (AO3)The disadvantage is that it can be over-simplistic. Humans and their environments are so complex that the reductionist explanation falls short of giving the whole explanation of the behavior. Thus, it lacks ecological validityDoes not address larger societal issues e.g., poverty.
The disadvantage is that it can be over-simplistic. Humans and their environments are so complex that the reductionist explanation falls short of giving the whole explanation of the behavior. Thus, it lacks ecological validityDoes not address larger societal issues e.g., poverty.
Conclusion
Reductionism in psychology is useful, as sometimes the simplest explanation is the best. Physiological approaches do tend to be reductionist, but as long as we bare these limitations in mind.
It is difficult, if not impossible, to take a completely holistic approach to psychology, as human behavior is so complex. Case studies come closest to taking a holistic approach.
Explaining behavior in a reductionist manner is seen as a low-level explanation, whereas more holistic explanations are high-level explanations.
Essay Question: – Discuss holism and reductionism in psychology (16 marks)
Idiographic & Nomothetic Approaches
Nomothetic Approach
The Nomothetic approach looks at how our behaviors are similar to each other as human beings. The term “nomothetic” comes from the Greek word “nomos,” meaning “law.”
Psychologists who adopt this approach are mainly concerned with studying what we share with others. That is to say, in establishing laws or generalizations. Tend to use quantitative methods.
Personality: – A Nomothetic ApproachThe psychometric approach to the study of personality compares individuals in terms of traits or dimensions common to everyone. This is a nomothetic approach, and two examples are Hans Eysenck’s type and Raymond Cattell’s 16PF trait theories.The details of their work need not concern us here. Suffice it to say they both assume that there are a small number of traits that account for the basic structure of all personalities and that individual differences can be measured along these dimensions.
Personality: – A Nomothetic Approach
The psychometric approach to the study of personality compares individuals in terms of traits or dimensions common to everyone. This is a nomothetic approach, and two examples are Hans Eysenck’s type and Raymond Cattell’s 16PF trait theories.The details of their work need not concern us here. Suffice it to say they both assume that there are a small number of traits that account for the basic structure of all personalities and that individual differences can be measured along these dimensions.
The psychometric approach to the study of personality compares individuals in terms of traits or dimensions common to everyone. This is a nomothetic approach, and two examples are Hans Eysenck’s type and Raymond Cattell’s 16PF trait theories.
The details of their work need not concern us here. Suffice it to say they both assume that there are a small number of traits that account for the basic structure of all personalities and that individual differences can be measured along these dimensions.
Strengths (AO3)The nomothetic approach is seen as far more scientific than the idiographic approach, as it takes an evidence-based, objective approach to formulate causal laws.This enables us to make predictions about how people are likely to react in certain circumstances, which can be very useful, e.g., Zimbardo’s findings about how prisoners and guards react in a prison environment.
The nomothetic approach is seen as far more scientific than the idiographic approach, as it takes an evidence-based, objective approach to formulate causal laws.This enables us to make predictions about how people are likely to react in certain circumstances, which can be very useful, e.g., Zimbardo’s findings about how prisoners and guards react in a prison environment.
Limitations (AO3)Predictions can be made about groups, but these may not apply to individuals.The approach has been accused of losing sight of the ‘whole person.’Idiographic Approach
Predictions can be made about groups, but these may not apply to individuals.The approach has been accused of losing sight of the ‘whole person.’Idiographic Approach
Idiographic Approach
The Idiographic or individual differences approach looks at how our behaviors are different from each other. The term “idiographic” comes from the Greek word “idios” meaning “own” or “private.” Psychologists interested in this aspect of experience want to discover what makes each of us unique. Tend to use qualitative methods.
Personality: – An Idiographic ApproachAt the other extreme, Gordon Allport found over 18,000 separate terms describing personal characteristics. Whilst some of these are common traits (that could be investigated nomothetically), the majority, in Allport’s view, referred to more or less unique dispositions based on life experiences peculiar to ourselves.He argues that they cannot be effectively studied using standardized tests. What is needed is a way of investigating them ideographically.Carl Rogers, a Humanist psychologist, has developed a method of doing this, a procedure called the “Q-sort.” First, the subject is given a large set of cards with a self-evaluative statement written on each one. For example, “I am friendly” or “I am ambitious,” etc.The subject is then asked to sort the cards into piles. One pile contains statements that are “most like me,” one statement that is “least like me,” and one or more piles for statements that are in-between.In a Q-sort, the number of cards can be varied, as can the number of piles and the type of question (e.g., How I am now? How I used to be? How my partner sees me? How I would like to be?) So there are a potentially infinite number of variations.That, of course, is exactly as it should be for an idiographic psychologist because, in his/her view, there are ultimately as many different personalities as there are people.
Personality: – An Idiographic Approach
At the other extreme, Gordon Allport found over 18,000 separate terms describing personal characteristics. Whilst some of these are common traits (that could be investigated nomothetically), the majority, in Allport’s view, referred to more or less unique dispositions based on life experiences peculiar to ourselves.He argues that they cannot be effectively studied using standardized tests. What is needed is a way of investigating them ideographically.Carl Rogers, a Humanist psychologist, has developed a method of doing this, a procedure called the “Q-sort.” First, the subject is given a large set of cards with a self-evaluative statement written on each one. For example, “I am friendly” or “I am ambitious,” etc.The subject is then asked to sort the cards into piles. One pile contains statements that are “most like me,” one statement that is “least like me,” and one or more piles for statements that are in-between.In a Q-sort, the number of cards can be varied, as can the number of piles and the type of question (e.g., How I am now? How I used to be? How my partner sees me? How I would like to be?) So there are a potentially infinite number of variations.That, of course, is exactly as it should be for an idiographic psychologist because, in his/her view, there are ultimately as many different personalities as there are people.
At the other extreme, Gordon Allport found over 18,000 separate terms describing personal characteristics. Whilst some of these are common traits (that could be investigated nomothetically), the majority, in Allport’s view, referred to more or less unique dispositions based on life experiences peculiar to ourselves.
He argues that they cannot be effectively studied using standardized tests. What is needed is a way of investigating them ideographically.
Carl Rogers, a Humanist psychologist, has developed a method of doing this, a procedure called the “Q-sort.” First, the subject is given a large set of cards with a self-evaluative statement written on each one. For example, “I am friendly” or “I am ambitious,” etc.
The subject is then asked to sort the cards into piles. One pile contains statements that are “most like me,” one statement that is “least like me,” and one or more piles for statements that are in-between.
In a Q-sort, the number of cards can be varied, as can the number of piles and the type of question (e.g., How I am now? How I used to be? How my partner sees me? How I would like to be?) So there are a potentially infinite number of variations.
That, of course, is exactly as it should be for an idiographic psychologist because, in his/her view, there are ultimately as many different personalities as there are people.
Limitations (AO3)The idiographic approach is very time-consuming. It takes a lot of time and money to study individuals in depth. If a researcher is using the nomothetic approach, once a questionnaire, psychometric test, or experiment has been designed, data can be collected relatively quickly.
The idiographic approach is very time-consuming. It takes a lot of time and money to study individuals in depth. If a researcher is using the nomothetic approach, once a questionnaire, psychometric test, or experiment has been designed, data can be collected relatively quickly.
From these examples, we can see that the difference between anomothetic and an idiographic approachis not just a question of what the psychologist wants to discover but also of the methods used.
Experiments, correlation, psychometric testing, and other quantitative methods are favored from a nomothetic point of view. Case studies, informal interviews, unstructured observation, and other qualitative methods are idiographic.
There are also broad differences between theoretical perspectives. Behaviorist, cognitive and biological psychologists tend to focus on discovering laws or establishing generalizations: – Nomothetic. The humanists are interested in the individual: – Idiographic.
As always, it is best to take a combined approach. Millon & Davis (1996) suggest research should start with a nomothetic approach and once general ‘laws’ have been established, research can then move to a more idiographic approach. Thus, getting the best of both worlds!
Essay Question: – Discuss idiographic and nomothetic approaches to psychological investigation (16 marks)
Ethical Issues in Psychology & Socially Sensitive Research
But consider the following examples:
a)Caughy et al. 1994 found that middle-class children put in daycare at an early age generally score less on cognitive tests than children from similar families reared in the home.
However, think of the wider implications of this study when the results are published, particularly for parents of middle-class infants who are considering placing their young charges in daycare or those who recently have!
b)IQ tests administered to black Americans show that they typically score 15 points below the average white score.
When black Americans are given these tests, they presumably complete them willingly and are in no way harmed as individuals. However, when published, findings of this sort seek to reinforce racial stereotypes and are used to discriminate against the black population in the job market, etc.
Members of the social group being studied, such as racial or ethnic group. For example, early research on IQ was used to discriminate against US Blacks.
Friends and relatives of those taking part in the study, particularly in case studies, where individuals may become famous or infamous. Cases that spring to mind would include Genie’s mother.
The research team. There are examples of researchers being intimidated because of the line of research they are in.
The institution in which the research is conducted.
Sieber & Stanley (1988) also suggest there are 4 main ethical concerns when conducting SSR:
Ethical Guidelines For Carrying Out SSR
Sieber and Stanley suggest the followingethical guidelinesfor carrying out SSR. There is some overlap between these and research on human participants in general.
Privacy: This refers to people rather than data. Asking people questions of a personal nature (e.g., about sexuality) could offend.
Confidentiality:This refers to data. Information (e.g., about H.I.V. status) leaked to others may affect the participant’s life.
Informed consent: Participants should be made aware of how taking part in the research may affect them.
Justice & equitable treatment: Examples of unjust treatment are (i) publicizing an idea, which creates a prejudice against a group, & (ii) withholding a treatment, which you believe is beneficial, from some participants so that you can use them as controls. E.g., The Tuskergee Study which withheld treatment for STIs from black men to investigate the effects of syphilis on the body.
Scientific freedom: Science should not be censored, but there should be some monitoring of sensitive research. The researcher should weigh their responsibilities against their rights to do the research.
Ownership of data: When research findings could be used to make social policies, which affect people’s lives, should they be publicly accessible? Sometimes, a party commissions research with their own interests in mind (e.g., an industry, an advertising agency, a political party, or the military).
Some people argue that scientists should be compelled to disclose their results so that other scientists can re-analyze them. If this had happened in Burt’s day, there might not have been such widespread belief in the genetic transmission of intelligence. George Miller (Miller’s Magic 7) famously argued that we should give psychology away.
The values of social scientists: Psychologists can be divided into two main groups: those who advocate a humanistic approach (individuals are important and worthy of study, quality of life is important, intuition is useful) and those advocating a scientific approach (rigorous methodology, objective data).
The researcher’s values may conflict with those of the participant/institution. For example, if someone with a scientific approach was evaluating a counseling technique based on a humanistic approach, they would judge it on criteria that those giving & receiving the therapy may not consider important.
Cost/benefit analysis: If the costs outweigh the potential/actual benefits, it is unethical. However, it is difficult to assess costs & benefits accurately & the participants themselves rarely benefit from research.
Sieber & Stanley advise: Researchers should not avoid researching socially sensitive issues. Scientists have a responsibility to society to find useful knowledge.
Arguments for SSR (AO3)Psychologists have devised methods to resolve the issues raised.SSR is the most scrutinized research in psychology. Ethical committees reject more SSR than any other form of research.By gaining a better understanding of issues such as gender, race, and sexuality, we are able to gain greater acceptance and reduce prejudice.SSR has been of benefit to society, for example, EWT. This has made us aware that EWT can be flawed and should not be used without corroboration. It has also made us aware that the EWT of children is every bit as reliable as that of adults.Most research is still carried out on white middle-class Americans (about 90% of research is quoted in texts!). SSR is helping to redress the balance and make us more aware of other cultures and outlooks.
Arguments for SSR (AO3)
Psychologists have devised methods to resolve the issues raised.SSR is the most scrutinized research in psychology. Ethical committees reject more SSR than any other form of research.By gaining a better understanding of issues such as gender, race, and sexuality, we are able to gain greater acceptance and reduce prejudice.SSR has been of benefit to society, for example, EWT. This has made us aware that EWT can be flawed and should not be used without corroboration. It has also made us aware that the EWT of children is every bit as reliable as that of adults.Most research is still carried out on white middle-class Americans (about 90% of research is quoted in texts!). SSR is helping to redress the balance and make us more aware of other cultures and outlooks.
Arguments against SSR (AO3)
A-Level Psychology Revision Notes
A-Level Psychology Attachment
Psychology Memory Revision NotesSocial Influence Revision NotesPsychopathology Revision NotesPsychology Approaches Revision for A-levelResearch Methods: Definition, Types, & Examples
Psychology Memory Revision Notes
Social Influence Revision NotesPsychopathology Revision NotesPsychology Approaches Revision for A-levelResearch Methods: Definition, Types, & Examples
Social Influence Revision Notes
Psychopathology Revision NotesPsychology Approaches Revision for A-levelResearch Methods: Definition, Types, & Examples
Psychopathology Revision Notes
Psychology Approaches Revision for A-levelResearch Methods: Definition, Types, & Examples
Psychology Approaches Revision for A-level
Research Methods: Definition, Types, & Examples
Issues and Debates in Psychology (A-Level Revision)
Saul McLeod, PhD
BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester
Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.
Deb Gajic, CPsycholTeam Leader Examiner (A-Level Psychology)B.A. (Hons), Social Sciences, Msc, PsychologyDeb Gajic is an experienced educational consultant with a robust history in the education and training field. She brings expertise in Psychology, Training, CPD Provision, Writing, Examining, Tutoring, Coaching, Lecturing, Educational Technology, and Curriculum Development. She holds a Master of Science (MSc) in Psychology from The Open University, a PGCE from Leicester University, and a BA (Hons) 2:1 from Warwick University. She is a Chartered Psychologist (CPsychol) and an Associate Fellow of the British Psychological Society (AFBPsS).
Deb Gajic, CPsycholTeam Leader Examiner (A-Level Psychology)B.A. (Hons), Social Sciences, Msc, Psychology
Deb Gajic, CPsychol
Team Leader Examiner (A-Level Psychology)
B.A. (Hons), Social Sciences, Msc, Psychology
Deb Gajic is an experienced educational consultant with a robust history in the education and training field. She brings expertise in Psychology, Training, CPD Provision, Writing, Examining, Tutoring, Coaching, Lecturing, Educational Technology, and Curriculum Development. She holds a Master of Science (MSc) in Psychology from The Open University, a PGCE from Leicester University, and a BA (Hons) 2:1 from Warwick University. She is a Chartered Psychologist (CPsychol) and an Associate Fellow of the British Psychological Society (AFBPsS).
