Is Marijuana Addictive?

Marijuana (cannabis) is not a harmless substance, and it is possible to become addicted. Learn more about the signs, risks, and potential effects of marijuana.

January 17, 2025 · 19 min · 3930 words · Jennifer Howard

Table of Contents

Table of ContentsView AllTable of ContentsIs Marijuana Addictive?SignsCausesEffectsTreatment

Table of ContentsView All

View All

Table of Contents

Is Marijuana Addictive?

Signs

Causes

Effects

Treatment

What is the most important information I should know about marijuana?Marijuana can have serious health risks, including negative effects on cognition, an increased risk for psychosis, and a risk for dependence and addiction.While several states have legalized marijuana for medicinal or recreational use, it is essential to be aware that marijuana is still illegal according to federal law. This also applies to any cannabis-derived products containing more than 0.3% THC

What is the most important information I should know about marijuana?

Marijuana can have serious health risks, including negative effects on cognition, an increased risk for psychosis, and a risk for dependence and addiction.While several states have legalized marijuana for medicinal or recreational use, it is essential to be aware that marijuana is still illegal according to federal law. This also applies to any cannabis-derived products containing more than 0.3% THC

While marijuana (cannabis) is one of the most commonly used drugs in the United States, many people have the same question: Is marijuana addictive? The answer is yes, it can be. While not everyone who uses marijuana will become addicted, it is not uncommon, and certain factors may increase your risk.

However, some who use marijuana develop the symptoms of addiction after chronic marijuana use.Marijuana also poses several other health risks that people should consider.

Cannabis use disorder, or marijuana use disorder, results from chronic cannabis use. It is defined in the fifth edition of theDiagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders(DSM-5) as a result of either dependence or abuse of marijuana.

PrevalenceThe National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) reports that 30% of people who use marijuana will develop problems with its use, known as marijuana use disorder.

Prevalence

The National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) reports that 30% of people who use marijuana will develop problems with its use, known as marijuana use disorder.

Signs of Marijuana Addiction

Someone who becomes addicted or dependent upon marijuana will likely display some of the classic behavioralsymptoms of addiction, which include:

Two of the most common signs of cannabis use disorder are physical dependence and withdrawal.

Marijuana Dependence

Most early research into marijuana addiction suggested that marijuana use rarely produced tolerance and withdrawal. However, the marijuana that is available today is more potent than the marijuana of the 1960s, containing higher levels of the active ingredientdelta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), which is the psychoactive component in marijuana.

The increased potency of modern marijuana strains means that there is a greater risk for tolerance, dependence, addiction, and withdrawal.

In addition, it has been found that marijuana dependence may affect your ability to respond to the neurotransmitterdopamine, which allows us to feel pleasure. In one study, those who had marijuana dependence had fewer positive emotions, higher stress levels, and increasedirritability.

How Dopamine Influences Your Mental Health

Marijuana Withdrawal

Today’s research shows that tolerance does develop to THC and thatwithdrawal symptomsdo occur in some people. Studies of those who chronically use and thenquit marijuanashow that they experience these withdrawal symptoms:

Some researchers believe that because today’s marijuana is much more potent, it makes it more likely that some people will develop physiological dependence.

Even if not physically or chemically dependent on marijuana, some people will develop a psychological dependence upon the drug. This often persists despite a person knowing they have a dependence or wanting to quit.

Why Is Marijuana Addictive?

Experts are still investigating why some people become addicted while others don’t. There are various reasons that a person might become dependent on marijuana. Of course, this doesn’t mean that you will develop an addiction to marijuana if you experience one or more of these risk factors.

Higher Potency Factor

Marijuana is made up of many components called cannabinoids. Two of these components, delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) andcannabidiol(CBD), have effects that are commonly known to people who use marijuana. THC is known as the substance that makes a person feel a “high,” while CBD often promotes a feeling of relaxation.

The NIDA reports that the higher potency of marijuana available today—specifically in regard to its THC levels—may be a factor in the rising number of people who develop a problem.

Is THC Addictive?THC can be addictive. Studies suggest that THC is the substance that creates the potential for marijuana addiction because of its psychoactive properties.

Is THC Addictive?

THC can be addictive. Studies suggest that THC is the substance that creates the potential for marijuana addiction because of its psychoactive properties.

Marijuana consumed in products made from marijuana extract, such as a solvent-based oil, contains between 54% and 69% THC—in some cases, exceeding 80%.

Age People Begin Smoking

Experts are finding a link between the age you begin using cannabis and the likelihood that you’ll develop a dependence on it. One study found that people who used cannabis starting at age 14 to 15 had a higher probability of developing dependence. On the other hand, for those who started using cannabis after age 15, the risk of developing a dependence drastically decreased.

Another study found that those who begin using marijuana before the age of 18 are four to seven times more likely to develop a cannabis use disorder later in life.

Frequency of Use

Genetics

Family relationships have been found to play a role in some cases of cannabis addiction. For instance, one study found that if your biologicalparents abuse alcoholor other drugs, you may be more likely to abuse alcohol or other drugs, including marijuana.

A 2020 study found that people have “genetic liability” withcannabis use disorder, meaning they are born with specific genes that increase their risk.However, experts agree there are usually more contributing factors, such as environment, access to marijuana, socioeconomic status, and more.

Mental Health

Some studies have found that people often engage in cannabis use to lessen their feelings of anxiety ordepression, and thatself-medicating in this waycan often lead to drug dependence. Other mental health considerations have been noted in people with cannabis dependence as well.

This includes people coping with panic disorder, with symptoms ofADHD, social anxiety disorder, andlow self-esteem. People dealing with poor sleep quality may also use cannabis to relieve these symptoms (although in the long term, it’s been found to decrease sleep quality).

Research is mixed as to whether mental health issues are more often the cause of cannabis abuse, or whether dependence on cannabis can, in turn, lead to mental health issues.

Effects of Marijuana Addiction

There are many chronic effects associated with cannabis use disorder. It has been found people with this condition often experience impaired cognitive functioning. This might mean:

Cannabis use disorder can impact other areas. Studies have found those who struggle with cannabis dependence often find dissatisfaction in various areas of their lives, including relationships, work, and education.

Treatment for Marijuana Addiction

Treatments are available that can help people overcome marijuana addiction. Such treatments primarily focus on psychotherapy, but researchers are also exploring medications that might someday be helpful.

Therapy

Fortunately, there are many types of treatment for cannabis use disorder. These include specific types of therapy.

Lifestyle Modifications

In addition, certain lifestyle changes may help you reduce or stop your marijuana use.

People develop cannabis dependence for different reasons, so it’s important to address any underlying issues. For instance, those who use marijuana to cope with anxiety, depression, or sleep disorders can find more appropriate treatment types—including lifestyle changes, therapy, and medication—to help relieve their symptoms.

Medication

In addition, experts are investigating whether there are specific medications that can help with cannabis use disorder. There are currently no medications approved for the treatment of cannabis use disorder.

Research suggests there are currently no effective medications in the treatment of cannabis use disorder.Buspirone was one medication of interest, but some research has shown that it is no more effective than a placebo and, in some cases, was linked to worse cannabis use outcomes.

Medications such as antidepressants may be prescribed to treat co-occurring mental health conditions such as anxiety or depression. You can consult your healthcare professional to see if this is a viable treatment option.

If you or a loved one are struggling with substance use or addiction, contact theSubstance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) National Helplineat 1-800-662-4357 for information on support and treatment facilities in your area.For more mental health resources, see ourNational Helpline Database.

If you or a loved one are struggling with substance use or addiction, contact theSubstance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) National Helplineat 1-800-662-4357 for information on support and treatment facilities in your area.

For more mental health resources, see ourNational Helpline Database.

How Effective Is Drug Treatment?

28 SourcesVerywell Mind uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Zehra A, Burns J, Liu CK, et al.Cannabis addiction and the brain: A review.J Neuroimmune Pharmacol. 2018;13(4):438-452. doi:10.1007/s11481-018-9782-9American Psychiatric Association (APA).Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 5th ed, text revision. Washington, D.C.; 2022.Hser Y-I, Mooney LJ, Huang D, et al.Reductions in cannabis use are associated with improvements in anxiety, depression, and sleep quality, but not quality of life.Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment.2017;81:53-58. doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2017.07.012Compton WM, Dawson DA, Goldstein RB, Grant BF.Crosswalk between DSM-IV dependence and DSM-5 substance use disorders for opioids, cannabis, cocaine and alcohol.Drug and Alcohol Dependence.2013;132(1-2):387-390. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.02.036Zehra A, Burns J, Liu CK, et al.Cannabis addiction and the brain: A review.Journal of Neuroimmune Pharmacology.2018;13(4):438-452. doi:10.1007/s11481-018-9782-9ElSohly M, Chandra S, Radwan M, Gon Majumdar C, Church J.A comprehensive review of cannabis potency in the United States in the last decade.Biolog Psychiatry: Cognit Neurosci Neuroimaging. 2021;6(6):603-6. doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2020.12.016Volkow ND, Wang G-J, Telang F, et al.Decreased dopamine brain reactivity in marijuana abusers is associated with negative emotionality and addiction severity.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.2014;111(30):E3149-E3156. doi:10.1073/pnas.1411228111Bonnet U, Preuss UW.The cannabis withdrawal syndrome: Current insights.Substance Abuse and Rehabilitation. 2017;8:9-37. doi:10.2147/SAR.S109576Stuyt E.The problem with the current high potency THC marijuana from the perspective of an addiction psychiatrist.Mo Med. 2018;115(6):482-486.Ramesh D, Schlosburg JE, Wiebelhaus JM, Lichtman AH.Marijuana dependence: Not just smoke and mirrors.ILAR Journal.2011;52(3):295-308. doi:10.1093/ilar.52.3.295National Institute on Drug Abuse.Is marijuana addictive?Zehra A, Burns J, Liu CK, et al.Cannabis addiction and the brain: A review.Journal of Neuroimmune Pharmacology : The Official Journal of the Society on NeuroImmune Pharmacology. 2018;13:438–452. doi: 10.1007/s11481-018-9782-9Zhu H, Wu L-T.Trends and correlates of cannabis-involved emergency department visits: 2004 to 2011.Journal of Addiction Medicine. 2016;10(6):429-436. doi:10.1097/adm.0000000000000256National Institute on Drug Abuse.Marijuana concentrates.Schlossarek S, Kempkensteffen J, Reimer J, Verthein U.Psychosocial determinants of cannabis dependence: A systematic review of the literature.European Addiction Research. 2016;22:131-144. doi:10.1159/000441777Meier MH, Caspi A, Ambler A, et al.Persistent cannabis users show neuropsychological decline from childhood to midlife.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.2012;109(40):E2657-E2664. doi:10.1073/pnas.1206820109Madras BK, Han B, Compton WM, Jones CM, Lopez EI, McCance-Katz EF.Associations of parental marijuana use with offspring marijuana, tobacco, and alcohol use and opioid misuse.JAMA Netw Open. 2019;2(11):e1916015. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.16015Johnson EC, Demontis D, Thorgeirsson TE, et al.A large-scale genome-wide association study meta-analysis of cannabis use disorder.The Lancet Psychiatry. 2020;7(12):1032-1045. doi:10.1016/s2215-0366(20)30339-4Kolla BP, Hayes L, Cox C, Eatwell L, Deyo-Svendsen M, Mansukhani MP.The effects of cannabinoids on sleep.J Prim Care Community Health. 2022;13:21501319221081277. doi:10.1177/21501319221081277Stypulkowski K, Thayer RE.Long-term recreational cannabis use is associated with lower executive function and processing speed in a pilot sample of older adults.J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol. 2022;35(5):740-746. doi:10.1177/08919887211049130National Institute on Drug Abuse.How does marijuana use affect school, work, and social life?.Sherman BJ, McRae-Clark AL.Treatment of cannabis use disorder: Current science and future outlook.Pharmacotherapy. 2016;36(5):511-535. doi:10.1002/phar.1747González-Ortega I, Echeburúa E, Alberich S, et al.Cognitive behavioral therapy program for cannabis use cessation in first-episode psychosis patients: A 1-year randomized controlled trial.Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022;19(12):7325. doi:10.3390/ijerph19127325Rodas JD, Sorkhou M, George TP.Contingency management for treatment of cannabis use disorder in co-occurring mental health disorders: A systematic review.Brain Sci. 2022;13(1):36. doi:10.3390/brainsci13010036National Institute on Drug Abuse.Motivational enhancement therapy (alcohol, marijuana, nicotine).Hodgins DC, Stea JN.Insights from individuals successfully recovered from cannabis use disorder: Natural versus treatment-assisted recoveries and abstinent versus moderation outcomes.Addiction Science & Clinical Practice.2018;13(16). doi:10.1186/s13722-018-0118-0Brezing CA, Levin FR.The current state of pharmacological treatments for cannabis use disorder and withdrawal.Neuropsychopharmacol. 2018;43(1):173-194. doi:10.1038/npp.2017.212McRae-Clark AL, Baker NL, Gray KM, et al.Buspirone treatment of cannabis dependence: A randomized, placebo-controlled trial.Drug Alcohol Depend. 2015;156:29-37. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.08.013Additional ReadingNational Institute on Drug Abuse.Commonly used drugs charts.National Institute on Drug Abuse.Research Reports.Marijuana.National Institute on Drug Abuse website (NIDA).Letter to teens.

28 Sources

Verywell Mind uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Zehra A, Burns J, Liu CK, et al.Cannabis addiction and the brain: A review.J Neuroimmune Pharmacol. 2018;13(4):438-452. doi:10.1007/s11481-018-9782-9American Psychiatric Association (APA).Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 5th ed, text revision. Washington, D.C.; 2022.Hser Y-I, Mooney LJ, Huang D, et al.Reductions in cannabis use are associated with improvements in anxiety, depression, and sleep quality, but not quality of life.Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment.2017;81:53-58. doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2017.07.012Compton WM, Dawson DA, Goldstein RB, Grant BF.Crosswalk between DSM-IV dependence and DSM-5 substance use disorders for opioids, cannabis, cocaine and alcohol.Drug and Alcohol Dependence.2013;132(1-2):387-390. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.02.036Zehra A, Burns J, Liu CK, et al.Cannabis addiction and the brain: A review.Journal of Neuroimmune Pharmacology.2018;13(4):438-452. doi:10.1007/s11481-018-9782-9ElSohly M, Chandra S, Radwan M, Gon Majumdar C, Church J.A comprehensive review of cannabis potency in the United States in the last decade.Biolog Psychiatry: Cognit Neurosci Neuroimaging. 2021;6(6):603-6. doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2020.12.016Volkow ND, Wang G-J, Telang F, et al.Decreased dopamine brain reactivity in marijuana abusers is associated with negative emotionality and addiction severity.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.2014;111(30):E3149-E3156. doi:10.1073/pnas.1411228111Bonnet U, Preuss UW.The cannabis withdrawal syndrome: Current insights.Substance Abuse and Rehabilitation. 2017;8:9-37. doi:10.2147/SAR.S109576Stuyt E.The problem with the current high potency THC marijuana from the perspective of an addiction psychiatrist.Mo Med. 2018;115(6):482-486.Ramesh D, Schlosburg JE, Wiebelhaus JM, Lichtman AH.Marijuana dependence: Not just smoke and mirrors.ILAR Journal.2011;52(3):295-308. doi:10.1093/ilar.52.3.295National Institute on Drug Abuse.Is marijuana addictive?Zehra A, Burns J, Liu CK, et al.Cannabis addiction and the brain: A review.Journal of Neuroimmune Pharmacology : The Official Journal of the Society on NeuroImmune Pharmacology. 2018;13:438–452. doi: 10.1007/s11481-018-9782-9Zhu H, Wu L-T.Trends and correlates of cannabis-involved emergency department visits: 2004 to 2011.Journal of Addiction Medicine. 2016;10(6):429-436. doi:10.1097/adm.0000000000000256National Institute on Drug Abuse.Marijuana concentrates.Schlossarek S, Kempkensteffen J, Reimer J, Verthein U.Psychosocial determinants of cannabis dependence: A systematic review of the literature.European Addiction Research. 2016;22:131-144. doi:10.1159/000441777Meier MH, Caspi A, Ambler A, et al.Persistent cannabis users show neuropsychological decline from childhood to midlife.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.2012;109(40):E2657-E2664. doi:10.1073/pnas.1206820109Madras BK, Han B, Compton WM, Jones CM, Lopez EI, McCance-Katz EF.Associations of parental marijuana use with offspring marijuana, tobacco, and alcohol use and opioid misuse.JAMA Netw Open. 2019;2(11):e1916015. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.16015Johnson EC, Demontis D, Thorgeirsson TE, et al.A large-scale genome-wide association study meta-analysis of cannabis use disorder.The Lancet Psychiatry. 2020;7(12):1032-1045. doi:10.1016/s2215-0366(20)30339-4Kolla BP, Hayes L, Cox C, Eatwell L, Deyo-Svendsen M, Mansukhani MP.The effects of cannabinoids on sleep.J Prim Care Community Health. 2022;13:21501319221081277. doi:10.1177/21501319221081277Stypulkowski K, Thayer RE.Long-term recreational cannabis use is associated with lower executive function and processing speed in a pilot sample of older adults.J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol. 2022;35(5):740-746. doi:10.1177/08919887211049130National Institute on Drug Abuse.How does marijuana use affect school, work, and social life?.Sherman BJ, McRae-Clark AL.Treatment of cannabis use disorder: Current science and future outlook.Pharmacotherapy. 2016;36(5):511-535. doi:10.1002/phar.1747González-Ortega I, Echeburúa E, Alberich S, et al.Cognitive behavioral therapy program for cannabis use cessation in first-episode psychosis patients: A 1-year randomized controlled trial.Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022;19(12):7325. doi:10.3390/ijerph19127325Rodas JD, Sorkhou M, George TP.Contingency management for treatment of cannabis use disorder in co-occurring mental health disorders: A systematic review.Brain Sci. 2022;13(1):36. doi:10.3390/brainsci13010036National Institute on Drug Abuse.Motivational enhancement therapy (alcohol, marijuana, nicotine).Hodgins DC, Stea JN.Insights from individuals successfully recovered from cannabis use disorder: Natural versus treatment-assisted recoveries and abstinent versus moderation outcomes.Addiction Science & Clinical Practice.2018;13(16). doi:10.1186/s13722-018-0118-0Brezing CA, Levin FR.The current state of pharmacological treatments for cannabis use disorder and withdrawal.Neuropsychopharmacol. 2018;43(1):173-194. doi:10.1038/npp.2017.212McRae-Clark AL, Baker NL, Gray KM, et al.Buspirone treatment of cannabis dependence: A randomized, placebo-controlled trial.Drug Alcohol Depend. 2015;156:29-37. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.08.013Additional ReadingNational Institute on Drug Abuse.Commonly used drugs charts.National Institute on Drug Abuse.Research Reports.Marijuana.National Institute on Drug Abuse website (NIDA).Letter to teens.

Verywell Mind uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.

Zehra A, Burns J, Liu CK, et al.Cannabis addiction and the brain: A review.J Neuroimmune Pharmacol. 2018;13(4):438-452. doi:10.1007/s11481-018-9782-9American Psychiatric Association (APA).Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 5th ed, text revision. Washington, D.C.; 2022.Hser Y-I, Mooney LJ, Huang D, et al.Reductions in cannabis use are associated with improvements in anxiety, depression, and sleep quality, but not quality of life.Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment.2017;81:53-58. doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2017.07.012Compton WM, Dawson DA, Goldstein RB, Grant BF.Crosswalk between DSM-IV dependence and DSM-5 substance use disorders for opioids, cannabis, cocaine and alcohol.Drug and Alcohol Dependence.2013;132(1-2):387-390. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.02.036Zehra A, Burns J, Liu CK, et al.Cannabis addiction and the brain: A review.Journal of Neuroimmune Pharmacology.2018;13(4):438-452. doi:10.1007/s11481-018-9782-9ElSohly M, Chandra S, Radwan M, Gon Majumdar C, Church J.A comprehensive review of cannabis potency in the United States in the last decade.Biolog Psychiatry: Cognit Neurosci Neuroimaging. 2021;6(6):603-6. doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2020.12.016Volkow ND, Wang G-J, Telang F, et al.Decreased dopamine brain reactivity in marijuana abusers is associated with negative emotionality and addiction severity.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.2014;111(30):E3149-E3156. doi:10.1073/pnas.1411228111Bonnet U, Preuss UW.The cannabis withdrawal syndrome: Current insights.Substance Abuse and Rehabilitation. 2017;8:9-37. doi:10.2147/SAR.S109576Stuyt E.The problem with the current high potency THC marijuana from the perspective of an addiction psychiatrist.Mo Med. 2018;115(6):482-486.Ramesh D, Schlosburg JE, Wiebelhaus JM, Lichtman AH.Marijuana dependence: Not just smoke and mirrors.ILAR Journal.2011;52(3):295-308. doi:10.1093/ilar.52.3.295National Institute on Drug Abuse.Is marijuana addictive?Zehra A, Burns J, Liu CK, et al.Cannabis addiction and the brain: A review.Journal of Neuroimmune Pharmacology : The Official Journal of the Society on NeuroImmune Pharmacology. 2018;13:438–452. doi: 10.1007/s11481-018-9782-9Zhu H, Wu L-T.Trends and correlates of cannabis-involved emergency department visits: 2004 to 2011.Journal of Addiction Medicine. 2016;10(6):429-436. doi:10.1097/adm.0000000000000256National Institute on Drug Abuse.Marijuana concentrates.Schlossarek S, Kempkensteffen J, Reimer J, Verthein U.Psychosocial determinants of cannabis dependence: A systematic review of the literature.European Addiction Research. 2016;22:131-144. doi:10.1159/000441777Meier MH, Caspi A, Ambler A, et al.Persistent cannabis users show neuropsychological decline from childhood to midlife.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.2012;109(40):E2657-E2664. doi:10.1073/pnas.1206820109Madras BK, Han B, Compton WM, Jones CM, Lopez EI, McCance-Katz EF.Associations of parental marijuana use with offspring marijuana, tobacco, and alcohol use and opioid misuse.JAMA Netw Open. 2019;2(11):e1916015. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.16015Johnson EC, Demontis D, Thorgeirsson TE, et al.A large-scale genome-wide association study meta-analysis of cannabis use disorder.The Lancet Psychiatry. 2020;7(12):1032-1045. doi:10.1016/s2215-0366(20)30339-4Kolla BP, Hayes L, Cox C, Eatwell L, Deyo-Svendsen M, Mansukhani MP.The effects of cannabinoids on sleep.J Prim Care Community Health. 2022;13:21501319221081277. doi:10.1177/21501319221081277Stypulkowski K, Thayer RE.Long-term recreational cannabis use is associated with lower executive function and processing speed in a pilot sample of older adults.J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol. 2022;35(5):740-746. doi:10.1177/08919887211049130National Institute on Drug Abuse.How does marijuana use affect school, work, and social life?.Sherman BJ, McRae-Clark AL.Treatment of cannabis use disorder: Current science and future outlook.Pharmacotherapy. 2016;36(5):511-535. doi:10.1002/phar.1747González-Ortega I, Echeburúa E, Alberich S, et al.Cognitive behavioral therapy program for cannabis use cessation in first-episode psychosis patients: A 1-year randomized controlled trial.Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022;19(12):7325. doi:10.3390/ijerph19127325Rodas JD, Sorkhou M, George TP.Contingency management for treatment of cannabis use disorder in co-occurring mental health disorders: A systematic review.Brain Sci. 2022;13(1):36. doi:10.3390/brainsci13010036National Institute on Drug Abuse.Motivational enhancement therapy (alcohol, marijuana, nicotine).Hodgins DC, Stea JN.Insights from individuals successfully recovered from cannabis use disorder: Natural versus treatment-assisted recoveries and abstinent versus moderation outcomes.Addiction Science & Clinical Practice.2018;13(16). doi:10.1186/s13722-018-0118-0Brezing CA, Levin FR.The current state of pharmacological treatments for cannabis use disorder and withdrawal.Neuropsychopharmacol. 2018;43(1):173-194. doi:10.1038/npp.2017.212McRae-Clark AL, Baker NL, Gray KM, et al.Buspirone treatment of cannabis dependence: A randomized, placebo-controlled trial.Drug Alcohol Depend. 2015;156:29-37. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.08.013

Zehra A, Burns J, Liu CK, et al.Cannabis addiction and the brain: A review.J Neuroimmune Pharmacol. 2018;13(4):438-452. doi:10.1007/s11481-018-9782-9

American Psychiatric Association (APA).Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 5th ed, text revision. Washington, D.C.; 2022.

Hser Y-I, Mooney LJ, Huang D, et al.Reductions in cannabis use are associated with improvements in anxiety, depression, and sleep quality, but not quality of life.Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment.2017;81:53-58. doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2017.07.012

Compton WM, Dawson DA, Goldstein RB, Grant BF.Crosswalk between DSM-IV dependence and DSM-5 substance use disorders for opioids, cannabis, cocaine and alcohol.Drug and Alcohol Dependence.2013;132(1-2):387-390. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.02.036

Zehra A, Burns J, Liu CK, et al.Cannabis addiction and the brain: A review.Journal of Neuroimmune Pharmacology.2018;13(4):438-452. doi:10.1007/s11481-018-9782-9

ElSohly M, Chandra S, Radwan M, Gon Majumdar C, Church J.A comprehensive review of cannabis potency in the United States in the last decade.Biolog Psychiatry: Cognit Neurosci Neuroimaging. 2021;6(6):603-6. doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2020.12.016

Volkow ND, Wang G-J, Telang F, et al.Decreased dopamine brain reactivity in marijuana abusers is associated with negative emotionality and addiction severity.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.2014;111(30):E3149-E3156. doi:10.1073/pnas.1411228111

Bonnet U, Preuss UW.The cannabis withdrawal syndrome: Current insights.Substance Abuse and Rehabilitation. 2017;8:9-37. doi:10.2147/SAR.S109576

Stuyt E.The problem with the current high potency THC marijuana from the perspective of an addiction psychiatrist.Mo Med. 2018;115(6):482-486.

Ramesh D, Schlosburg JE, Wiebelhaus JM, Lichtman AH.Marijuana dependence: Not just smoke and mirrors.ILAR Journal.2011;52(3):295-308. doi:10.1093/ilar.52.3.295

National Institute on Drug Abuse.Is marijuana addictive?

Zehra A, Burns J, Liu CK, et al.Cannabis addiction and the brain: A review.Journal of Neuroimmune Pharmacology : The Official Journal of the Society on NeuroImmune Pharmacology. 2018;13:438–452. doi: 10.1007/s11481-018-9782-9

Zhu H, Wu L-T.Trends and correlates of cannabis-involved emergency department visits: 2004 to 2011.Journal of Addiction Medicine. 2016;10(6):429-436. doi:10.1097/adm.0000000000000256

National Institute on Drug Abuse.Marijuana concentrates.

Schlossarek S, Kempkensteffen J, Reimer J, Verthein U.Psychosocial determinants of cannabis dependence: A systematic review of the literature.European Addiction Research. 2016;22:131-144. doi:10.1159/000441777

Meier MH, Caspi A, Ambler A, et al.Persistent cannabis users show neuropsychological decline from childhood to midlife.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.2012;109(40):E2657-E2664. doi:10.1073/pnas.1206820109

Madras BK, Han B, Compton WM, Jones CM, Lopez EI, McCance-Katz EF.Associations of parental marijuana use with offspring marijuana, tobacco, and alcohol use and opioid misuse.JAMA Netw Open. 2019;2(11):e1916015. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.16015

Johnson EC, Demontis D, Thorgeirsson TE, et al.A large-scale genome-wide association study meta-analysis of cannabis use disorder.The Lancet Psychiatry. 2020;7(12):1032-1045. doi:10.1016/s2215-0366(20)30339-4

Kolla BP, Hayes L, Cox C, Eatwell L, Deyo-Svendsen M, Mansukhani MP.The effects of cannabinoids on sleep.J Prim Care Community Health. 2022;13:21501319221081277. doi:10.1177/21501319221081277

Stypulkowski K, Thayer RE.Long-term recreational cannabis use is associated with lower executive function and processing speed in a pilot sample of older adults.J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol. 2022;35(5):740-746. doi:10.1177/08919887211049130

National Institute on Drug Abuse.How does marijuana use affect school, work, and social life?.

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