How the Experimental Method Works in Psychology

Table of ContentsView AllTable of ContentsDefinitionHistoryKey TermsThe Experimental ProcessTypes of ExperimentsExamplesPotential Pitfalls of the Experimental Method

Table of ContentsView All

View All

Table of Contents

Definition

History

Key Terms

The Experimental Process

Types of Experiments

Examples

Potential Pitfalls of the Experimental Method

Close

The experimental method is a type of research procedure that involves manipulating variables to determine if there is a cause-and-effect relationship. The results obtained through the experimental method are useful but do not prove with 100% certainty that a singular cause always creates a specific effect.Instead, they show theprobabilitythat a cause will or will not lead to a particular effect.At a GlanceWhile there are many differentresearch techniquesavailable, the experimental method allows researchers to look at cause-and-effect relationships. Using the experimental method, researchers randomly assign participants to a control or experimental group and manipulate levels of an independent variable. If changes in the independent variable lead to changes in the dependent variable, it indicates there is likely a causal relationship between them.What Is the Experimental Method in Psychology?The experimental method involves manipulating one variable to determine if this causes changes in another variable. This method relies on controlled research methods andrandom assignmentof study subjects to test a hypothesis.For example, researchers may want to learn how different visual patterns may impact our perception. Or they might wonder whether certain actions canimprove memory. Experiments are conducted on many behavioral topics, including:AttentionCognitionEmotionMemoryPerceptionSensationThe scientific method forms the basis of the experimental method.This is a process used to determine the relationship between two variables—in this case, to explainhuman behavior.Positivism is also important in the experimental method. It refers to factual knowledge that is obtained through observation, which is considered to be trustworthy.When using the experimental method, researchers first identify and define key variables. Then they formulate a hypothesis, manipulate the variables, and collect data on the results. Unrelated or irrelevant variables are carefully controlled to minimize the potential impact on the experiment outcome.History of the Experimental MethodThe idea of using experiments to better understandhuman psychologybegan toward the end of the nineteenth century. Wilhelm Wundt established the first formal laboratory in 1879.Wundt is often called the father of experimental psychology. He believed that experiments could help explain how psychology works, and used this approach to studyconsciousness.Wundt coined the term “physiological psychology.“This is a hybrid of physiology and psychology, or how the body affects the brain.Other early contributors to the development and evolution of experimental psychology as we know it today include:Gustav Fechner(1801-1887), who helped develop procedures for measuring sensations according to the size of the stimulusHermann von Helmholtz(1821-1894), who analyzed philosophical assumptions through research in an attempt to arrive at scientific conclusionsFranz Brentano(1838-1917), who called for a combination of first-person and third-person research methods when studying psychologyGeorg Elias Müller(1850-1934), who performed an early experiment on attitude which involved the sensory discrimination of weights and revealed how anticipation can affect this discriminationKey Terms to KnowTo understand how the experimental method works, it is important to know some key terms.Dependent VariableThedependent variableis the effect that the experimenter is measuring. If a researcher was investigating how sleep influences test scores, for example, the test scores would be the dependent variable.Independent VariableTheindependent variableis the variable that the experimenter manipulates. In the previous example, the amount of sleep an individual gets would be the independent variable.HypothesisAhypothesisis a tentative statement or a guess about the possible relationship between two or more variables. In looking at how sleep influences test scores, the researcher might hypothesize that people who get more sleep will perform better on a math test the following day. The purpose of the experiment, then, is to either support or reject this hypothesis.Operational definitions are necessary when performing an experiment. When we say that something is an independent or dependent variable, we must have a very clear and specific definition of the meaning and scope of that variable.Extraneous VariablesExtraneous variables are other variables that may also affect the outcome of an experiment. Types of extraneous variables include participant variables, situational variables, demand characteristics, and experimenter effects. In some cases, researchers can take steps to control for extraneous variables.Demand CharacteristicsDemand characteristicsare subtle hints that indicate what an experimenter is hoping to find in a psychology experiment. This can sometimes cause participants to alter their behavior, which can affect the results of the experiment.Intervening VariablesIntervening variables are factors that can affect the relationship between two other variables.Confounding VariablesConfounding variablesare variables that can affect the dependent variable, but that experimenters cannot control for. Confounding variables can make it difficult to determine if the effect was due to changes in the independent variable or if the confounding variable may have played a role.Types of Variables in Psychology ResearchThe Experimental ProcessPsychologists, like other scientists, use the scientific method when conducting an experiment. Thescientific methodis a set of procedures and principles that guide how scientists develop research questions, collect data, and come to conclusions.The five basic steps of the experimental process are:Identifying a problem to studyDevising the research protocolConducting the experimentAnalyzing the data collectedSharing the findings (usually in writing or via presentation)Most psychology students are expected to use the experimental method at some point in their academic careers. Learninghow to conduct an experimentis important to understanding how psychologists prove and disprove theories in this field.Types of ExperimentsThere are a few different types of experiments that researchers might use when studying psychology. Each has pros and cons depending on the participants being studied, the hypothesis, and the resources available to conduct the research.Lab ExperimentsLab experiments are common in psychology because they allow experimenters more control over the variables.These experiments can also be easier for other researchers to replicate. The drawback of this research type is that what takes place in a lab is not always what takes place in the real world.Field ExperimentsSometimes researchers opt to conduct their experiments in the field. For example, asocial psychologistinterested in researching prosocial behavior might have a person pretend to faint and observe how long it takes onlookers to respond.This type of experiment can be a great way to see behavioral responses in realistic settings. But it is more difficult for researchers to control the many variables existing in these settings that could potentially influence the experiment’s results.The Basics of Prosocial BehaviorQuasi-ExperimentsWhile lab experiments are known as true experiments, researchers can also utilize a quasi-experiment. Quasi-experiments are often referred to as natural experiments because the researchers do not have true control over the independent variable.A researcher looking at personality differences and birth order, for example, is not able to manipulate the independent variable in the situation (personality traits). Participants also cannot be randomly assigned because they naturally fall intopre-existing groupsbased on their birth order.So why would a researcher use a quasi-experiment? This is a good choice in situations where scientists are interested in studying phenomena in natural, real-world settings. It’s also beneficial if there are limits on research funds or time.Field experiments can be either quasi-experiments or true experiments.Examples of the Experimental Method in UseThe experimental method can provide insight into human thoughts and behaviors, Researchers use experiments to study many aspects of psychology.AttentionA 2019 study investigated whether splitting attention between electronic devices and classroom lectures had an effect on college students' learning abilities. It found thatdividing attentionbetween these two mediums did not affect lecture comprehension. However, it did impact long-term retention of the lecture information, which affected students' exam performance.CognitionAn experiment used participants' eye movements and electroencephalogram (EEG) data to better understand cognitive processing differences between experts and novices. It found that experts had higher power in their thetabrain wavesthan novices, suggesting that they also had a higher cognitive load.EmotionA study looked at whether chatting online with a computer via a chatbot changed the positive effects ofemotional disclosureoften received when talking with an actual human. It found that the effects were the same in both cases.MemoryOne experimental study evaluated whether exercise timing impacts information recall. It found that engaging in exercise prior to performing a memory task helped improve participants’short-term memoryabilities.PerceptionSometimes researchers use the experimental method to get a bigger-picture view of psychological behaviors and impacts. For example, one 2018 study examined several lab experiments to learn more about the impact of various environmental factors on building occupant perceptions.SensationA 2020 study set out to determine the role thatsensation-seekingplays in political violence. This research found that sensation-seeking individuals have a higher propensity for engaging in political violence. It also found that providing access to a more peaceful, yet still exciting political group helps reduce this effect.Potential Pitfalls of the Experimental MethodWhile the experimental method can be a valuable tool for learning more about psychology and its impacts, it also comes with a few pitfalls.Experiments may produce artificial results, which are difficult to apply to real-world situations. Similarly, researcher bias can impact the data collected. Results may not be able to be reproduced, meaning the results havelow reliability.Since humans are unpredictable and their behavior can be subjective, it can be hard to measure responses in an experiment. In addition, political pressure may alter the results. The subjects may not be a good representation of the population, or groups used may not be comparable.And finally, since researchers are human too, results may be degraded due to human error.What This Means For YouEvery psychological research method has its pros and cons. The experimental method can help establish cause and effect, and it’s also beneficial when research funds are limited or time is of the essence.At the same time, it’s essential to be aware of this method’s pitfalls, such as how biases can affect the results or the potential for low reliability. Keeping these in mind can help you review and assess research studies more accurately, giving you a better idea ofwhether the results can be trustedor have limitations.Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research

The experimental method is a type of research procedure that involves manipulating variables to determine if there is a cause-and-effect relationship. The results obtained through the experimental method are useful but do not prove with 100% certainty that a singular cause always creates a specific effect.Instead, they show theprobabilitythat a cause will or will not lead to a particular effect.

At a GlanceWhile there are many differentresearch techniquesavailable, the experimental method allows researchers to look at cause-and-effect relationships. Using the experimental method, researchers randomly assign participants to a control or experimental group and manipulate levels of an independent variable. If changes in the independent variable lead to changes in the dependent variable, it indicates there is likely a causal relationship between them.

At a Glance

While there are many differentresearch techniquesavailable, the experimental method allows researchers to look at cause-and-effect relationships. Using the experimental method, researchers randomly assign participants to a control or experimental group and manipulate levels of an independent variable. If changes in the independent variable lead to changes in the dependent variable, it indicates there is likely a causal relationship between them.

What Is the Experimental Method in Psychology?

The experimental method involves manipulating one variable to determine if this causes changes in another variable. This method relies on controlled research methods andrandom assignmentof study subjects to test a hypothesis.

For example, researchers may want to learn how different visual patterns may impact our perception. Or they might wonder whether certain actions canimprove memory. Experiments are conducted on many behavioral topics, including:

The scientific method forms the basis of the experimental method.This is a process used to determine the relationship between two variables—in this case, to explainhuman behavior.

Positivism is also important in the experimental method. It refers to factual knowledge that is obtained through observation, which is considered to be trustworthy.

When using the experimental method, researchers first identify and define key variables. Then they formulate a hypothesis, manipulate the variables, and collect data on the results. Unrelated or irrelevant variables are carefully controlled to minimize the potential impact on the experiment outcome.

History of the Experimental Method

The idea of using experiments to better understandhuman psychologybegan toward the end of the nineteenth century. Wilhelm Wundt established the first formal laboratory in 1879.

Wundt is often called the father of experimental psychology. He believed that experiments could help explain how psychology works, and used this approach to studyconsciousness.

Wundt coined the term “physiological psychology.“This is a hybrid of physiology and psychology, or how the body affects the brain.

Other early contributors to the development and evolution of experimental psychology as we know it today include:

Key Terms to Know

To understand how the experimental method works, it is important to know some key terms.

Dependent Variable

Thedependent variableis the effect that the experimenter is measuring. If a researcher was investigating how sleep influences test scores, for example, the test scores would be the dependent variable.

Independent Variable

Theindependent variableis the variable that the experimenter manipulates. In the previous example, the amount of sleep an individual gets would be the independent variable.

Hypothesis

Ahypothesisis a tentative statement or a guess about the possible relationship between two or more variables. In looking at how sleep influences test scores, the researcher might hypothesize that people who get more sleep will perform better on a math test the following day. The purpose of the experiment, then, is to either support or reject this hypothesis.

Operational definitions are necessary when performing an experiment. When we say that something is an independent or dependent variable, we must have a very clear and specific definition of the meaning and scope of that variable.

Extraneous Variables

Extraneous variables are other variables that may also affect the outcome of an experiment. Types of extraneous variables include participant variables, situational variables, demand characteristics, and experimenter effects. In some cases, researchers can take steps to control for extraneous variables.

Demand Characteristics

Demand characteristicsare subtle hints that indicate what an experimenter is hoping to find in a psychology experiment. This can sometimes cause participants to alter their behavior, which can affect the results of the experiment.

Intervening Variables

Intervening variables are factors that can affect the relationship between two other variables.

Confounding Variables

Confounding variablesare variables that can affect the dependent variable, but that experimenters cannot control for. Confounding variables can make it difficult to determine if the effect was due to changes in the independent variable or if the confounding variable may have played a role.

Types of Variables in Psychology Research

Psychologists, like other scientists, use the scientific method when conducting an experiment. Thescientific methodis a set of procedures and principles that guide how scientists develop research questions, collect data, and come to conclusions.

The five basic steps of the experimental process are:

Most psychology students are expected to use the experimental method at some point in their academic careers. Learninghow to conduct an experimentis important to understanding how psychologists prove and disprove theories in this field.

There are a few different types of experiments that researchers might use when studying psychology. Each has pros and cons depending on the participants being studied, the hypothesis, and the resources available to conduct the research.

Lab Experiments

Lab experiments are common in psychology because they allow experimenters more control over the variables.These experiments can also be easier for other researchers to replicate. The drawback of this research type is that what takes place in a lab is not always what takes place in the real world.

Field Experiments

Sometimes researchers opt to conduct their experiments in the field. For example, asocial psychologistinterested in researching prosocial behavior might have a person pretend to faint and observe how long it takes onlookers to respond.

This type of experiment can be a great way to see behavioral responses in realistic settings. But it is more difficult for researchers to control the many variables existing in these settings that could potentially influence the experiment’s results.

The Basics of Prosocial Behavior

Quasi-Experiments

While lab experiments are known as true experiments, researchers can also utilize a quasi-experiment. Quasi-experiments are often referred to as natural experiments because the researchers do not have true control over the independent variable.

A researcher looking at personality differences and birth order, for example, is not able to manipulate the independent variable in the situation (personality traits). Participants also cannot be randomly assigned because they naturally fall intopre-existing groupsbased on their birth order.

So why would a researcher use a quasi-experiment? This is a good choice in situations where scientists are interested in studying phenomena in natural, real-world settings. It’s also beneficial if there are limits on research funds or time.

Field experiments can be either quasi-experiments or true experiments.

Examples of the Experimental Method in Use

The experimental method can provide insight into human thoughts and behaviors, Researchers use experiments to study many aspects of psychology.

Attention

A 2019 study investigated whether splitting attention between electronic devices and classroom lectures had an effect on college students' learning abilities. It found thatdividing attentionbetween these two mediums did not affect lecture comprehension. However, it did impact long-term retention of the lecture information, which affected students' exam performance.

Cognition

An experiment used participants' eye movements and electroencephalogram (EEG) data to better understand cognitive processing differences between experts and novices. It found that experts had higher power in their thetabrain wavesthan novices, suggesting that they also had a higher cognitive load.

Emotion

A study looked at whether chatting online with a computer via a chatbot changed the positive effects ofemotional disclosureoften received when talking with an actual human. It found that the effects were the same in both cases.

Memory

One experimental study evaluated whether exercise timing impacts information recall. It found that engaging in exercise prior to performing a memory task helped improve participants’short-term memoryabilities.

Perception

Sometimes researchers use the experimental method to get a bigger-picture view of psychological behaviors and impacts. For example, one 2018 study examined several lab experiments to learn more about the impact of various environmental factors on building occupant perceptions.

Sensation

A 2020 study set out to determine the role thatsensation-seekingplays in political violence. This research found that sensation-seeking individuals have a higher propensity for engaging in political violence. It also found that providing access to a more peaceful, yet still exciting political group helps reduce this effect.

While the experimental method can be a valuable tool for learning more about psychology and its impacts, it also comes with a few pitfalls.

Experiments may produce artificial results, which are difficult to apply to real-world situations. Similarly, researcher bias can impact the data collected. Results may not be able to be reproduced, meaning the results havelow reliability.

Since humans are unpredictable and their behavior can be subjective, it can be hard to measure responses in an experiment. In addition, political pressure may alter the results. The subjects may not be a good representation of the population, or groups used may not be comparable.

And finally, since researchers are human too, results may be degraded due to human error.

What This Means For YouEvery psychological research method has its pros and cons. The experimental method can help establish cause and effect, and it’s also beneficial when research funds are limited or time is of the essence.At the same time, it’s essential to be aware of this method’s pitfalls, such as how biases can affect the results or the potential for low reliability. Keeping these in mind can help you review and assess research studies more accurately, giving you a better idea ofwhether the results can be trustedor have limitations.

What This Means For You

Every psychological research method has its pros and cons. The experimental method can help establish cause and effect, and it’s also beneficial when research funds are limited or time is of the essence.At the same time, it’s essential to be aware of this method’s pitfalls, such as how biases can affect the results or the potential for low reliability. Keeping these in mind can help you review and assess research studies more accurately, giving you a better idea ofwhether the results can be trustedor have limitations.

Every psychological research method has its pros and cons. The experimental method can help establish cause and effect, and it’s also beneficial when research funds are limited or time is of the essence.

At the same time, it’s essential to be aware of this method’s pitfalls, such as how biases can affect the results or the potential for low reliability. Keeping these in mind can help you review and assess research studies more accurately, giving you a better idea ofwhether the results can be trustedor have limitations.

Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research

18 SourcesVerywell Mind uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Colorado State University.Experimental and quasi-experimental research.American Psychological Association.Experimental psychology studies human and animals.Mayrhofer R, Kuhbandner C, Lindner C.The practice of experimental psychology: An inevitably postmodern endeavor.Front Psychol. 2021;11:612805. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.612805Mandler G.A History of Modern Experimental Psychology.Stanford University.Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.Britannica.Gustav Fechner.Britannica.Hermann von Helmholtz.Meyer A, Hackert B, Weger U.Franz Brentano and the beginning of experimental psychology: implications for the study of psychological phenomena today.Psychol Res. 2018;82:245-254. doi:10.1007/s00426-016-0825-7Britannica.Georg Elias Müller.McCambridge J, de Bruin M, Witton J.The effects of demand characteristics on research participant behaviours in non-laboratory settings: A systematic review.PLoS ONE. 2012;7(6):e39116. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0039116Laboratory experiments. In:The Sage Encyclopedia of Communication Research Methods.Allen M, ed. SAGE Publications, Inc. doi:10.4135/9781483381411.n287Schweizer M, Braun B, Milstone A.Research methods in healthcare epidemiology and antimicrobial stewardship — quasi-experimental designs.Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2016;37(10):1135-1140. doi:10.1017/ice.2016.117Glass A, Kang M.Dividing attention in the classroom reduces exam performance.Educ Psychol. 2019;39(3):395-408. doi:10.1080/01443410.2018.1489046Keskin M, Ooms K, Dogru AO, De Maeyer P.Exploring the cognitive load of expert and novice map users using EEG and eye tracking.ISPRS Int J Geo-Inf. 2020;9(7):429. doi:10.3390.ijgi9070429Ho A, Hancock J, Miner A.Psychological, relational, and emotional effects of self-disclosure after conversations with a chatbot.J Commun. 2018;68(4):712-733. doi:10.1093/joc/jqy026Haynes IV J, Frith E, Sng E, Loprinzi P.Experimental effects of acute exercise on episodic memory function: Considerations for the timing of exercise.Psychol Rep. 2018;122(5):1744-1754. doi:10.1177/0033294118786688Torresin S, Pernigotto G, Cappelletti F, Gasparella A.Combined effects of environmental factors on human perception and objective performance: A review of experimental laboratory works.Indoor Air. 2018;28(4):525-538. doi:10.1111/ina.12457Schumpe BM, Belanger JJ, Moyano M, Nisa CF.The role of sensation seeking in political violence: An extension of the significance quest theory.J Personal Social Psychol. 2020;118(4):743-761. doi:10.1037/pspp0000223

18 Sources

Verywell Mind uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Colorado State University.Experimental and quasi-experimental research.American Psychological Association.Experimental psychology studies human and animals.Mayrhofer R, Kuhbandner C, Lindner C.The practice of experimental psychology: An inevitably postmodern endeavor.Front Psychol. 2021;11:612805. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.612805Mandler G.A History of Modern Experimental Psychology.Stanford University.Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.Britannica.Gustav Fechner.Britannica.Hermann von Helmholtz.Meyer A, Hackert B, Weger U.Franz Brentano and the beginning of experimental psychology: implications for the study of psychological phenomena today.Psychol Res. 2018;82:245-254. doi:10.1007/s00426-016-0825-7Britannica.Georg Elias Müller.McCambridge J, de Bruin M, Witton J.The effects of demand characteristics on research participant behaviours in non-laboratory settings: A systematic review.PLoS ONE. 2012;7(6):e39116. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0039116Laboratory experiments. In:The Sage Encyclopedia of Communication Research Methods.Allen M, ed. SAGE Publications, Inc. doi:10.4135/9781483381411.n287Schweizer M, Braun B, Milstone A.Research methods in healthcare epidemiology and antimicrobial stewardship — quasi-experimental designs.Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2016;37(10):1135-1140. doi:10.1017/ice.2016.117Glass A, Kang M.Dividing attention in the classroom reduces exam performance.Educ Psychol. 2019;39(3):395-408. doi:10.1080/01443410.2018.1489046Keskin M, Ooms K, Dogru AO, De Maeyer P.Exploring the cognitive load of expert and novice map users using EEG and eye tracking.ISPRS Int J Geo-Inf. 2020;9(7):429. doi:10.3390.ijgi9070429Ho A, Hancock J, Miner A.Psychological, relational, and emotional effects of self-disclosure after conversations with a chatbot.J Commun. 2018;68(4):712-733. doi:10.1093/joc/jqy026Haynes IV J, Frith E, Sng E, Loprinzi P.Experimental effects of acute exercise on episodic memory function: Considerations for the timing of exercise.Psychol Rep. 2018;122(5):1744-1754. doi:10.1177/0033294118786688Torresin S, Pernigotto G, Cappelletti F, Gasparella A.Combined effects of environmental factors on human perception and objective performance: A review of experimental laboratory works.Indoor Air. 2018;28(4):525-538. doi:10.1111/ina.12457Schumpe BM, Belanger JJ, Moyano M, Nisa CF.The role of sensation seeking in political violence: An extension of the significance quest theory.J Personal Social Psychol. 2020;118(4):743-761. doi:10.1037/pspp0000223

Verywell Mind uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.

Colorado State University.Experimental and quasi-experimental research.American Psychological Association.Experimental psychology studies human and animals.Mayrhofer R, Kuhbandner C, Lindner C.The practice of experimental psychology: An inevitably postmodern endeavor.Front Psychol. 2021;11:612805. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.612805Mandler G.A History of Modern Experimental Psychology.Stanford University.Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.Britannica.Gustav Fechner.Britannica.Hermann von Helmholtz.Meyer A, Hackert B, Weger U.Franz Brentano and the beginning of experimental psychology: implications for the study of psychological phenomena today.Psychol Res. 2018;82:245-254. doi:10.1007/s00426-016-0825-7Britannica.Georg Elias Müller.McCambridge J, de Bruin M, Witton J.The effects of demand characteristics on research participant behaviours in non-laboratory settings: A systematic review.PLoS ONE. 2012;7(6):e39116. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0039116Laboratory experiments. In:The Sage Encyclopedia of Communication Research Methods.Allen M, ed. SAGE Publications, Inc. doi:10.4135/9781483381411.n287Schweizer M, Braun B, Milstone A.Research methods in healthcare epidemiology and antimicrobial stewardship — quasi-experimental designs.Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2016;37(10):1135-1140. doi:10.1017/ice.2016.117Glass A, Kang M.Dividing attention in the classroom reduces exam performance.Educ Psychol. 2019;39(3):395-408. doi:10.1080/01443410.2018.1489046Keskin M, Ooms K, Dogru AO, De Maeyer P.Exploring the cognitive load of expert and novice map users using EEG and eye tracking.ISPRS Int J Geo-Inf. 2020;9(7):429. doi:10.3390.ijgi9070429Ho A, Hancock J, Miner A.Psychological, relational, and emotional effects of self-disclosure after conversations with a chatbot.J Commun. 2018;68(4):712-733. doi:10.1093/joc/jqy026Haynes IV J, Frith E, Sng E, Loprinzi P.Experimental effects of acute exercise on episodic memory function: Considerations for the timing of exercise.Psychol Rep. 2018;122(5):1744-1754. doi:10.1177/0033294118786688Torresin S, Pernigotto G, Cappelletti F, Gasparella A.Combined effects of environmental factors on human perception and objective performance: A review of experimental laboratory works.Indoor Air. 2018;28(4):525-538. doi:10.1111/ina.12457Schumpe BM, Belanger JJ, Moyano M, Nisa CF.The role of sensation seeking in political violence: An extension of the significance quest theory.J Personal Social Psychol. 2020;118(4):743-761. doi:10.1037/pspp0000223

Colorado State University.Experimental and quasi-experimental research.

American Psychological Association.Experimental psychology studies human and animals.

Mayrhofer R, Kuhbandner C, Lindner C.The practice of experimental psychology: An inevitably postmodern endeavor.Front Psychol. 2021;11:612805. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.612805

Mandler G.A History of Modern Experimental Psychology.

Stanford University.Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Britannica.Gustav Fechner.

Britannica.Hermann von Helmholtz.

Meyer A, Hackert B, Weger U.Franz Brentano and the beginning of experimental psychology: implications for the study of psychological phenomena today.Psychol Res. 2018;82:245-254. doi:10.1007/s00426-016-0825-7

Britannica.Georg Elias Müller.

McCambridge J, de Bruin M, Witton J.The effects of demand characteristics on research participant behaviours in non-laboratory settings: A systematic review.PLoS ONE. 2012;7(6):e39116. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0039116

Laboratory experiments. In:The Sage Encyclopedia of Communication Research Methods.Allen M, ed. SAGE Publications, Inc. doi:10.4135/9781483381411.n287

Schweizer M, Braun B, Milstone A.Research methods in healthcare epidemiology and antimicrobial stewardship — quasi-experimental designs.Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2016;37(10):1135-1140. doi:10.1017/ice.2016.117

Glass A, Kang M.Dividing attention in the classroom reduces exam performance.Educ Psychol. 2019;39(3):395-408. doi:10.1080/01443410.2018.1489046

Keskin M, Ooms K, Dogru AO, De Maeyer P.Exploring the cognitive load of expert and novice map users using EEG and eye tracking.ISPRS Int J Geo-Inf. 2020;9(7):429. doi:10.3390.ijgi9070429

Ho A, Hancock J, Miner A.Psychological, relational, and emotional effects of self-disclosure after conversations with a chatbot.J Commun. 2018;68(4):712-733. doi:10.1093/joc/jqy026

Haynes IV J, Frith E, Sng E, Loprinzi P.Experimental effects of acute exercise on episodic memory function: Considerations for the timing of exercise.Psychol Rep. 2018;122(5):1744-1754. doi:10.1177/0033294118786688

Torresin S, Pernigotto G, Cappelletti F, Gasparella A.Combined effects of environmental factors on human perception and objective performance: A review of experimental laboratory works.Indoor Air. 2018;28(4):525-538. doi:10.1111/ina.12457

Schumpe BM, Belanger JJ, Moyano M, Nisa CF.The role of sensation seeking in political violence: An extension of the significance quest theory.J Personal Social Psychol. 2020;118(4):743-761. doi:10.1037/pspp0000223

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