Table of ContentsView AllTable of ContentsOverviewNature vs. NurturePrenatal Child DevelopmentEnvironmental InfluencesGene ExpressionGenetic Abnormalities

Table of ContentsView All

View All

Table of Contents

Overview

Nature vs. Nurture

Prenatal Child Development

Environmental Influences

Gene Expression

Genetic Abnormalities

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What determines how a child develops? While it is impossible to account for each and every influence that contributes to who a child eventually becomes, today, most researchers view development as a combination of both a child’s heredity and environment.

This involves considering factors such as genetics, parenting,experiences, friends, family, education, and relationships. By understanding the role that these factors play, researchers are better able to identify how such influences contribute to child development.

This question has puzzled philosophers,psychologists, and educators for hundreds of years and is frequently referred to as thenature versus nurturedebate. Are we the result of nature (our genetic background) or nurture (our environment)? Today, most researchers agree that child development involves a complex interaction of both nature and nurture.

From the earliest moments of life, the interaction of heredity and the environment works to shape who children are and who they will become. While the genetic instructions a child inherits from their parents may set out a road map for development, the environment can impact how these directions are expressed, shaped, or even silenced.

The complex interaction of nature and nurture does not just occur at certain moments or at certain periods of time; it is persistent and lifelong.

In order to understand child development, it is important to look at the biological influences that help shape child development, how experiences interact with genetics, and some of the genetic disorders that can have an impact onchild psychologyand development.

7 Main Developmental Theories

At its very beginning, the development of a child starts when the male reproductive cell, or sperm, penetrates the protective outer membrane of the female reproductive cell, or ovum. The sperm and ovum each contain chromosomes that act as a blueprint for human life.

The genes contained in these chromosomes are made up of a chemical structure known as DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) that contains the genetic code, or instructions, that make up all life. Except for the sperm and ova, all cells in the body contain 46 chromosomes.

As you might guess, the sperm and ova each contain only contain 23 chromosomes. This ensures that when the two cells meet, the resulting new organism has the correct 46 chromosomes.

So how exactly do the genetic instructions passed down from both parents influence how a child develops and the traits they will have? In order to fully understand this, it is important to first distinguish between a child’s genetic inheritance and the actual expression of those genes.

A genotype refers to all of the genes that a person has inherited. A phenotype is how these genes are actually expressed.The phenotype can include physical traits, such as height and color of the eyes, as well as nonphysical traits such asshynessand extroversion.

How Extroversion in Personality Influences Behavior

While your genotype may represent a blueprint for how children grow up, the way that these building blocks are put together determines how these genes will be expressed. Think of it as a bit like building a house. The same blueprint can result in a range of different homes that look quite similar but have important differences based on the material and color choices used during construction.

Whether or not a gene is expressed depends on two different things: the interaction of the gene with other genes and the continual interaction between the genotype and the environment.

Genetic instructions are not infallible and can go off track at times. Sometimes when a sperm or ovum is formed, the number of chromosomes may divide unevenly, causing the organism to have more or less than the normal 23 chromosomes. When one of these abnormal cells joins with a normal cell, the resulting zygote will have an uneven number of chromosomes.

In some cases, babies are born with an abnormal number of chromosomes. In every case, the result is some type of syndrome with a set of distinguishing characteristics.

Sex Chromosome Abnormalities

The vast majority of newborns, both boys and girls, have at least one X chromosome. In some cases, about 1 in every 500 births, children are born with either a missing X chromosome or an additional sex chromosome. Klinefelter syndrome, Fragile X syndrome, and Turner syndrome are all examples of abnormalities involving the sex chromosomes.

Turner syndrome occurs when only one sex chromosome (the X chromosome) is present. It affects only females and can result in short stature, a “webbed” neck, and a lack of secondary sex characteristics. Psychological impairments associated with Turner syndrome include learning disabilities and difficulty recognizing emotions conveyed throughfacial expressions.

Down Syndrome

The most common type of chromosomal disorder is known as trisomy 21, or Down syndrome.In this case, the child has three chromosomes at the site of the 21st chromosome instead of the normal two.

A Word From Verywell

Clearly, genetic influences have an enormous influence on how a child develops. However, it is important to remember that genetics is just one piece of the intricate puzzle that makes up a child’s life. Environmental variables including parenting, culture, education, andsocial relationshipsalso play a vital role.

8 SourcesVerywell Mind uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Levitt M.Perceptions of nature, nurture and behaviour.Life Sci Soc Policy. 2013;9:13. doi:10.1186/2195-7819-9-13Day FR, Perry JR, Ong KK.Genetic regulation of puberty timing in humans.Neuroendocrinology. 2015;102(4):247–255. doi:10.1159/000431023National Human Genome Research Institute.Phenotype.Jelenkovic A, Sund R, Hur YM, et al.Genetic and environmental influences on height from infancy to early adulthood: An individual-based pooled analysis of 45 twin cohorts.Sci Rep. 2016;6:28496. doi:10.1038/srep28496U.S. National Library of Medicine.Klinefelter syndrome.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.What is fragile X syndrome?.U.S. National Library of Medicine.Turner syndrome.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Facts about Down syndrome.

8 Sources

Verywell Mind uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Levitt M.Perceptions of nature, nurture and behaviour.Life Sci Soc Policy. 2013;9:13. doi:10.1186/2195-7819-9-13Day FR, Perry JR, Ong KK.Genetic regulation of puberty timing in humans.Neuroendocrinology. 2015;102(4):247–255. doi:10.1159/000431023National Human Genome Research Institute.Phenotype.Jelenkovic A, Sund R, Hur YM, et al.Genetic and environmental influences on height from infancy to early adulthood: An individual-based pooled analysis of 45 twin cohorts.Sci Rep. 2016;6:28496. doi:10.1038/srep28496U.S. National Library of Medicine.Klinefelter syndrome.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.What is fragile X syndrome?.U.S. National Library of Medicine.Turner syndrome.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Facts about Down syndrome.

Verywell Mind uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.

Levitt M.Perceptions of nature, nurture and behaviour.Life Sci Soc Policy. 2013;9:13. doi:10.1186/2195-7819-9-13Day FR, Perry JR, Ong KK.Genetic regulation of puberty timing in humans.Neuroendocrinology. 2015;102(4):247–255. doi:10.1159/000431023National Human Genome Research Institute.Phenotype.Jelenkovic A, Sund R, Hur YM, et al.Genetic and environmental influences on height from infancy to early adulthood: An individual-based pooled analysis of 45 twin cohorts.Sci Rep. 2016;6:28496. doi:10.1038/srep28496U.S. National Library of Medicine.Klinefelter syndrome.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.What is fragile X syndrome?.U.S. National Library of Medicine.Turner syndrome.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Facts about Down syndrome.

Levitt M.Perceptions of nature, nurture and behaviour.Life Sci Soc Policy. 2013;9:13. doi:10.1186/2195-7819-9-13

Day FR, Perry JR, Ong KK.Genetic regulation of puberty timing in humans.Neuroendocrinology. 2015;102(4):247–255. doi:10.1159/000431023

National Human Genome Research Institute.Phenotype.

Jelenkovic A, Sund R, Hur YM, et al.Genetic and environmental influences on height from infancy to early adulthood: An individual-based pooled analysis of 45 twin cohorts.Sci Rep. 2016;6:28496. doi:10.1038/srep28496

U.S. National Library of Medicine.Klinefelter syndrome.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.What is fragile X syndrome?.

U.S. National Library of Medicine.Turner syndrome.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Facts about Down syndrome.

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