On This Page:ToggleWhat is Discourse Analysis?Key ConceptsTypesPractical StepsChallengesValidating Results
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What is Discourse Analysis?
Discourse analysisis aqualitative research methodused to study written and spoken language in relation to its social context. It aims to understand how language is used in real-life situations.
It goes beyond analyzing just the words and sentences to establish a deeper understanding of how language is used.
Instead, it examines the linguistic content (what is being said) and the way language is used in a given text to convey meaning in different social settings.
Instead of simply focusing on the literal meanings of words and sentences, discourse analysis explores the deeper meaning behind how language is used in specific social contexts.
This method of research analyzes the intended meaning behind the words and phrases within a specific context, rather than just their definition, frequency, or surface-level themes.
It helps researchers understand the underlying values, assumptions, and intentions embedded in language.
Language helps people share thoughts and ideas, build relationships, establish culture, influence others, and create meaning.
Discourse analysis, therefore, provides a lens through which researchers can view the many functions of language, including shaping power structures, constructing societal narratives, and molding opinions
Researchers use discourse analysis to study:
Key Concepts
1.Context
The social, cultural, and historical factors that influence communication play a crucial role in discourse analysis.The context of a conversation shapes the meaning of the language used, even if the words themselves are the same.For instance, a chat with a police officer differs significantly from a casual conversation with a close friend, highlighting the importance of context in shaping language use.
2.Structure
Discourse analysis examines how language is organized and structured to convey meaning. This involves studying elements such as:
3.Statements
4.Shape Reality
One of the key insights of discourse analysis is that language is not neutral; instead, it actively shapes our understanding of the world and influences social reality.Through language, we construct our identities, relationships, and knowledge systems. Discourse analysis helps researchers understand how this process works in different contexts.
5.Power Dynamics
Discourse analysis is often used to uncover how language can reflect and perpetuate power imbalances in society.For example, critical discourse analysis (CDA) examines how language can be used to assert dominance, control narratives, and marginalize certain groups.
Types of Discourse Analysis
There are two primary approaches to discourse analysis: language-in-use and socio-political.
The language-in-use approach focuses on the technical aspects of language, such as how grammar, syntax, and phonology are used to create meaning. The socio-political approach examines how language reflects normalized or repressive power dynamics.
1.Language-in-use Approaches to Discourse Analysis
Language-in-use approaches to discourse analysis concentrate on thelinguistic features of language, including:
The aim is to understand how these aspects of language are used and manipulated in social contexts. This approach recognizes that language does not merely reflect a pre-existing social reality but actively constructs it.
For example, how conversational markers (e.g., turn-taking, overlap, exhalation, disagreement) are used to negotiate meaning and build knowledge within conversations.
“Language-in-use” is sometimes used synonymously with “pragmatics,” which refers to the study of howcontext influences the meaning of language.
This includes analyzing how listeners interpret the meaning of words and phrases based on the social context.
Analyzing language in use involves two key tasks:
However, the terms “discourse analysis” and “pragmatics” are not always used in the same way.
Sometimes, “discourse analysis” is reserved for analyzing how sentences in a spoken or written text work together to create meaning and define different genres (e.g., dialogues, narratives, reports).
When analyzing discourse, it’s important to consider the interplay of various linguistic elements, cultural influences, and social dynamics.
Researchers use a systematic approach, carefully examining spoken conversations, written texts, and visual media to understand how language functions within a particular context.
This involves going beyond literal meanings to uncover the hidden dimensions and power dynamics embedded in communication.
Key Concepts Related to Language-in-use:
Example Methods
2.Socio-political approaches to discourse analysis
Socio-political approaches to discourse analysis are more philosophical and mainly concerned with how language constructs and sustains power dynamics in society. Although politics is a central focus, these approaches apply more broadly.
These approaches move beyond analyzing just the linguistic elements to consider the social and political implications of language use:
Critical discourse analysis
Critical discourse analysis(CDA)examines how language is used to create, maintain, and challenge power relations in society. CDA is particularly concerned with issues of social justice, inequality, and oppression.
Critical discourse analysis researchers believe that language isn’t neutral; it reflects power dynamics in society.
It aims to uncover the hidden agendas and biases that are present in everyday conversations and official communications.
Assumptions
For example
CDA researchers pay close attention to who has control over communication:
CDA argues that understanding these subtle ways that language shapes our perceptions of power is crucial for challenging social inequality.
Discourse analysis offers a powerful lens for critically examining the intricate relationship between language, meaning, and social life.
Other examples of critial discourse analysis
Steps for Conducting Discourse Analysis
Step 1:Define the research question and select the content of analysis
Begin with a clearly defined research question and then select a range of material that is appropriate to answer it.
After developing a research question, select a range of material that is appropriate to answer it.
Discourse analysis can be applied to both large volumes of material and smaller samples, depending on the research aims and timescale.
To illustrate, consider a research project exploring how a country’s transition from a dictatorship to a democracy affected the public relations rhetoric of businesses in that country.
The researcher might decide to analyze the mission statements and marketing material from the 10 largest companies within 5 years of the regime change
Step 2:Collect information about the material production and its presentation medium
When engaging in discourse analysis, gathering information about the material production and presentation is essential for putting data into context and gaining a complete nuanced understanding.
What does “Material Production” mean?
Material production refers to the origin and creation of the text or content you are analyzing. This means finding out:
What does “Presentation Medium” mean?
“Presentation Medium” refers to how the material is presented. This could include things like:
Example: Analyzing a speech
Let’s say you’re analyzing a speech about climate change. To understand the speech properly, you would need to know:
By considering these factors, you can better understand the speaker’s perspective and motivations, as well as the potential impact of the speech.
Step 4:Identify the text producer(s) and their position(s) in discourse analysis
Identifying the text producer(s) and their position(s) is often carried out in conjunction with understanding the material production of a text (step 3).
This step involves figuring outwhocreated the text andwhat perspectives and biases they might have. It’s like trying to understand where someone is coming from when they’re talking to you.
Identifying the text producer(s) and their positions is an important step towards critically analyzing a text and uncovering the hidden meanings and assumptions embedded within it.
By considering these factors, you can gain insights into the author’s perspective and potential biases.
Example
For example, in an academic study analyzing interviews with teenagers from working-class and upper-middle-class families, the researchers considered the social and economic backgrounds of the teenagers and their interviewers.
They also acknowledged the power dynamics inherent in the interviewer-interviewee relationship, recognizing that teenagers might adapt their language based on the perceived identity of the interviewer as a “school-based” or “college-based” person.
Similarly, when analyzing workplace interactions, researchers might look at the power dynamics between managers and employees or between colleagues at different levels of seniority.
Understanding these dynamics can shed light on how language is used to negotiate power, status, and identity within specific social contexts.
Step 5:Examine the structure of the text
After figuring out the context of your data, you should analyze how the author organized their ideas and arguments to form the “structure” of the text, which provides further context.
By understanding the structure, you can better grasp the author’s goals and what they are trying to say. This understanding also makes your qualitative analysis and results stronger.
Helpful tips for examining the text structure:
At the base of the pyramid lies thecontext. Every interview, document, or text is situated within some context, be it cultural or otherwise.
Moving up a level, we encounter thestructureof these interviews, documents, or texts. While they consist of discursive statements, these statements are part of a larger rhetorical structure that’s important to understand.
At the apex of the pyramid are thestatementsthemselves. Statements form the core of texts, and discourse analysis offers various lenses that delve deeply into these statements.
Step 6:Analyze the discursive statements within the text
Identify statements within the text that reveal underlying values, assumptions, and how the text constructs social reality.
Discursive statements are the fundamental units of meaning within a discourse.
They’re essentially the sentences or phrases that convey ideas and arguments within a text. Analyzing these statements involves dissecting them to uncover their underlying meaning and how they contribute to the overall message of the text.
To analyze discursive statements effectively, you can use different “lenses” or analytical tools. These lenses help you examine the statement from multiple perspectives and uncover hidden layers of meaning.
Analyzing discursive statements is like peeling back the layers of an onion. Each layer reveals new insights into how language shapes meaning and understanding.
By using different analytical lenses, you can gain a deeper appreciation for the complexities of language and its role in constructing social realities.
Remember, the goal is to move beyond simply describing what the text says to understanding how it constructs meaning and shapes our understanding of the world.
Step 7:Interpreting data and explaining discourse
Connect your findings to explain the essence and functionality of the discourse.
Interpreting the data requires connecting the findings from the previous steps of discourse analysis to explain the main point and purpose of the discourse.
This means taking everything learned about the discourse’s background, author, and social impact and putting it all together into a clear and organized written report.
The goal is to go beyond merely describing what the text says to understanding how it constructs meaning. This involves moving back and forth between the context and the language used.
For example, if analyzing a speech, consider the speaker’s background and their relationship to the audience.
Think about the social and historical events happening when the speech was given, and what the speaker hoped to achieve with their words.
By connecting these contextual factors to the specific language used in the speech, one can start to interpret the data and explain the speech’s essence and function.
Step 8:Present your findings
You need to convey the results of your discourse analysis in an organized way. This may involve:
When presenting your findings, you should:
Discourse analysis researchers typically disseminate research findings through:
It is accepted practice in discourse research to include extracts of data to demonstrate how the analysis is linked to the data. This allows readers to assess the analysis for themselves.
When presenting data in published form, it might be necessary to simplify the transcription system to make it easier for a reader to understand. One example is to provide a series of images, like a filmstrip, next to the corresponding talk.
Challenges of Discourse Analysis
Validating Results in Discourse Analysis
To ensure trustworthiness and rigor in discourse analysis, researchers employ various strategies like reflexivity and transparency.
Here are some practical strategies to incorporate reflexivity and transparency in thematic analysis:
Researchers should document all decisions made during the research process and demonstrate how the analysis is linked to the collected data.
The analysis should offer a plausible account of the data, be coherent in explaining occurrences, and produce fruitful outcomes that contribute to knowledge.
References
Edwards, D., & Potter, J. (1992). Discursive psychology. Sage, London.
Gee, J., P. (2011).An Introduction to Discourse Analysis. Routledge, London.
Gergen, K. J. (2015,).An invitation to Social Construction. Sage, London.
Gergen, K. J. (2014).Pursuing excellence in qualitative inquiry.Qualitative Psychology,1(1), 49.
Hodges, B. D., Kuper, A., Reeves, S. (2008). Discourse Analysis.BMJ, a879.
Jefferson, G. (2004).Glossary of transcript symbols with an introduction.Conversation analysis, 13-31.
Johnstone, B. (2017).Discourse Analysis. Wiley, London.
Paltridge, B. (2012).Discourse Analysis: An Introduction. Bloomsbury.
Parker, I. (2013). Discourse analysis: Dimensions of critique in psychology.Qualitative research in psychology,10(3), 223-239.
Sacks, H., Schegloff, E. A., & Jefferson, G. (1978).A simplest systematics for the organization of turn taking for conversation. InStudies in the organization of conversational interaction(pp. 7-55). Academic Press.
Tannen, D., Hamilton, H., Schiffrin, D. 2015.The Handbook of Discourse Analysis. Wiley, Chichester.
Examples
Journals
Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc
BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education
Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.
Saul McLeod, PhD
BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester
Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.
