Key Points
Rationale
The COVID-19 pandemic caused significant disruptions to children’s and caregivers’ mental and physical well-being, including quality of life (QoL) (Nobari et al., 2021; Ravens-Sieberer et al., 2023).
While research has established that caregivers and children experienced stress and poorer well-being due to the pandemic (Adams et al., 2021), little is known about the interdependent associations between caregiver and child COVID-19 experiences and well-being, particularly in U.S. samples.
Understanding these dynamics is crucial for developing effective interventions.
Previous studies have shown that caregivers’ mental states are linked to child well-being during the pandemic (Ueda et al., 2022), and that resilience may serve as a protective factor (Montirosso et al., 2021).
However, most research on child QoL during the pandemic has been conducted outside the U.S. (Nobari et al., 2021), limiting our understanding of how U.S. children were affected.
By utilizing a family systems perspective and dyadic data analysis, the research provides insights into the complex interrelationships among family members’ experiences and well-being during a major societal crisis.
Method
The study employed alongitudinal designwith two time points, using online surveys to collect data from caregiver-child dyads.
Procedure
Sample
The final sample included 231 caregiver-child dyads. Children (54.5% male) were aged 8-17 years (M= 11.87,SD= 2.66). Most children (92.2%) and caregivers (92.6%) identified as White.
Caregivers were primarily female (94.8%) and biological parents (93.9%). Most families resided in the Midwestern United States (46.8%).
Measures
Statistical measures
Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics,correlations, and advanced dyadic data analysis techniques, including Actor-Partner Interdependence Models (APIMs) and Actor-Partner Interdependence Mediation Models (APIMeMs).
Results
Hypothesis1: Greater caregiver and child perceived T1 COVID-19 impact would be associated with worse caregiver proxy- and child self-reported T2 child QoL (actor and partner effects).
Results: Supported. Lower actor (b = −3.57, p = .002) and partner (b = −2.78, p = .02) COVID-19 impact were significantly associated with greater child QoL.
Hypothesis 2: Greater caregiver- and child-reported T1 COVID-19 impact would be associated with lower caregiver and child T2 resilience (actor and partner effects).
Results: Partially supported. There was a significant actor effect (b = −2.02, p = .003) such that lower self-reported COVID-19 impact was associated with greater resilience for both caregivers and children. No significant partner effects were found.
Hypothesis 3: Greater caregiver- and child-reported T1 COVID-19 impact would be associated with lower caregiver and child T2 resilience, which would then be associated with lower T2 child QoL (actor and partner indirect effects).
Results: Partially supported. Two significant indirect effects were found:
Insight
This study provides novel insights into the well-being of U.S. children and their caregivers during the COVID-19 pandemic.
The findings underscore the interdependence of caregiver and child experiences, highlighting the importance of considering family systems in understanding and addressing child well-being during crises.
Key findings include:
Future research could:
Strengths
Limitations
These limitations suggest caution in generalizing results to low-income or minoritized groups and underscore the need for further research with more diverse samples and over longer time periods.
Implications
The findings have significant implications for understanding and supporting child well-being during and after societal crises:
Variables that influence the results include sociodemographic factors (e.g., income, gender, ethnicity), family relationship quality, and individual perceptions of COVID-19 impact. These variables should be considered in the development and implementation of interventions.
References
Primary reference
Olsavsky, A. L., Ralph, J., Benhayoun, A., Hill, K. N., Guttoo, P., Akard, T. F., Gerhardt, C., & Skeens, M. A. (2024). COVID-19 impact, resilience, and child quality of life: A dyadic analysis.Journal of Family Psychology, 38(4), 523–535.https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0001218
Other references
Adams, E. L., Smith, D., Caccavale, L. J., & Bean, M. K. (2021). Parents are stressed! Patterns of parent stress across COVID-19.Frontiers in Psychiatry, 12,Article 626456.https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.626456
Campbell-Sills, L., & Stein, M. B. (2007). Psychometric analysis and refinement of the Connor-davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC): Validation of a 10-item measure of resilience.Journal of Traumatic Stress, 20(6), 1019-1028.https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20271
Kazak, A. E., Alderfer, M., Enlow, P. T., Lewis, A. M., Vega, G., Barakat, L., Kassam-Adams, N., Pai, A., Canter, K. S., Hildenbrand, A. K., McDonnell, G. A., Price, J., Schultz, C., Sood, E., & Phan, T. L. (2021). COVID-19 Exposure and Family Impact Scales: Factor structure and initial psychometrics.Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 46(5), 504-513.https://doi.org/10.1093/jpepsy/jsab026
Montirosso, R., Mascheroni, E., Guida, E., Piazza, C., Sali, M. E., Molteni, M., & Reni, G. (2021). Stress symptoms and resilience factors in children with neurodevelopmental disabilities and their parents during the COVID-19 pandemic.Health Psychology, 40(7), 428-438.https://doi.org/10.1037/hea0000966
Nobari, H., Fashi, M., Eskandari, A., Villafaina, S., Murillo-Garcia, Á., & Pérez-Gómez, J. (2021). Effect of COVID-19 on health-related quality of life in adolescents and children: A systematic review.International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(9), Article 4563.https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18094563
Ravens-Sieberer, U., Kaman, A., Erhart, M., Otto, C., Devine, J., Löffler, C., Hurrelmann, K., Bullinger, M., Barkmann, C., Siegel, N. A., Hurrelmann, K., Bullinger, M., Barkmann, C., Siegel, N. A., & Hölling, H. (2023). Quality of life and mental health in children and adolescents during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic: Results of a two-wave nationwide population-based study.European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 32,575-588.https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-021-01889-1
Ueda, R., Okada, T., Kita, Y., Ukezono, M., Takada, M., Ozawa, Y., Inoue, H., Shioda, M., Kono, Y., Kono, C., Nakamura, Y., Amemiya, K., Ito, A., Sugiura, N., Matsuoka, Y., Kaiga, C., Shiraki, Y., Kubota, M., & Ozawa, H. (2022). Quality of life of children with neurodevelopmental disorders and their parents during the COVID-19 pandemic: A 1-year follow-up study.Scientific Reports, 12(1), Article 4298.https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-08273-2
Varni, J. W., Burwinkle, T. M., Seid, M., & Skarr, D. (2003). The PedsQL 4.0 as a pediatric population health measure: Feasibility, reliability, and validity.Ambulatory Pediatrics, 3(6), 329-341.Keep LearningHow might the interdependence of caregiver and child experiences during a crisis inform the development of family-based interventions?In what ways could fostering resilience in children potentially mitigate the negative impacts of societal crises on their quality of life?How might the findings of this study be different if conducted with a more diverse sample, particularly in terms of race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status?What ethical considerations should researchers keep in mind when studying families during times of crisis, such as a pandemic?What are the potential implications of these findings for school-based mental health programs and policies?
Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc
BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education
Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.
Saul McLeod, PhD
BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester
Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.
