Correlation Studies in Psychology Research

Table of ContentsView AllTable of ContentsCharacteristicsTypesPotential PitfallsFrequently Asked Questions

Table of ContentsView All

View All

Table of Contents

Characteristics

Types

Potential Pitfalls

Frequently Asked Questions

Close

A correlational study is a type of research design that looks at the relationships between two or more variables. Correlational studies are non-experimental, which means that the experimenter does not manipulate or control any of the variables.

A correlation refers to a relationship between two variables.Correlations can be strong or weakand positive or negative. Sometimes, there is no correlation.

There are three possible outcomes of a correlation study: a positive correlation, a negative correlation, or no correlation. Researchers can present the results using a numerical value called the correlation coefficient, a measure of the correlation strength. It can range from –1.00 (negative) to +1.00 (positive). A correlation coefficient of 0 indicates no correlation.

Psychology Research Jargon You Should Know

Characteristics of a Correlational Study

Correlational studies are often used in psychology, as well as other fields like medicine.Correlational research is a preliminary way to gather information about a topic. The method is also useful if researchers are unable to perform an experiment.

Researchers use correlations to see if a relationship between two or more variables exists, but the variables themselves are not under the control of the researchers.

While correlational research can demonstrate a relationship between variables, it cannot prove that changing one variable will change another. In other words, correlational studies cannot prove cause-and-effect relationships.

When you encounter research that refers to a “link” or an “association” between two things, they are most likely talking about a correlational study.

Types of Correlational Research

There are three types of correlational research: naturalistic observation, the survey method, and archival research. Each type has its own purpose, as well as its pros and cons.

Basic Research in Psychology

Naturalistic Observation

Thenaturalistic observation methodinvolves observing and recording variables of interest in a natural setting without interference or manipulation.

AdvantagesCan inspire ideas for further researchOption if lab experiment not availableVariables are viewed in natural settingDisadvantagesCan be time-consuming and expensiveExtraneous variables can’t be controlledNo scientific control of variablesSubjects might behave differently if aware of being observed

AdvantagesCan inspire ideas for further researchOption if lab experiment not availableVariables are viewed in natural setting

Can inspire ideas for further research

Option if lab experiment not available

Variables are viewed in natural setting

DisadvantagesCan be time-consuming and expensiveExtraneous variables can’t be controlledNo scientific control of variablesSubjects might behave differently if aware of being observed

Can be time-consuming and expensive

Extraneous variables can’t be controlled

No scientific control of variables

Subjects might behave differently if aware of being observed

This method is well-suited to studies where researchers want to see how variables behave in their natural setting or state. Inspiration can then be drawn from the observations to inform future avenues of research.

Naturalistic observation presents several challenges for researchers. For one, it does not allow them to control or influence thevariablesin any way nor can they change any possible external variables.

However, this does not mean that researchers will get reliable data from watching the variables, or that the information they gather will be free from bias.

For example, study subjects might act differently if they know that they are being watched. The researchers might not be aware that the behavior that they are observing is not necessarily the subject’s natural state (i.e., how they would act if they did not know they were being watched).

Researchers also need to be aware of their biases, which can affect the observation and interpretation of a subject’s behavior.

Surveys

Surveys and questionnaires are some of the most common methods used for psychological research. The survey method involves having arandom sampleof participants complete a survey, test, or questionnaire related to the variables of interest. Random sampling is vital to the generalizability of a survey’s results.

AdvantagesCheap, easy, and fastCan collect large amounts of data in a short amount of timeFlexible

Cheap, easy, and fast

Can collect large amounts of data in a short amount of time

Flexible

If researchers need to gather a large amount of data in a short period of time, a survey is likely to be the fastest, easiest, and cheapest option.

It’s also a flexible method because it lets researchers create data-gathering tools that will help ensure they get the information they need (survey responses) from all the sources they want to use (a random sample of participants taking the survey).

The use of surveys relies on participants to provide useful data. Researchers need to be aware of the specific factors related to the people taking the survey that will affect its outcome.

For example, some people might struggle to understand the questions. A person might answer a particular way to try to please the researchers or to try to control how the researchers perceive them (such as trying to make themselves “look better”).

Sometimes, respondents might not even realize that their answers are incorrect or misleading because ofmistaken memories.

Archival Research

For example, in an experiment known as"The Irritable Heart," researchers used digitalized records containing information on American Civil War veterans to learn more about post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

AdvantagesLarge amount of dataCan be less expensiveResearchers cannot change participant behaviorDisadvantagesCan be unreliableInformation might be missingNo control over data collection methods

AdvantagesLarge amount of dataCan be less expensiveResearchers cannot change participant behavior

Large amount of data

Can be less expensive

Researchers cannot change participant behavior

DisadvantagesCan be unreliableInformation might be missingNo control over data collection methods

Can be unreliable

Information might be missing

No control over data collection methods

Using records, databases, and libraries that are publicly accessible or accessible through their institution can help researchers who might not have a lot of money to support their research efforts.

Free and low-cost resources are available to researchers at all levels through academic institutions, museums, and data repositories around the world.

Another potential benefit is that these sources often provide an enormous amount of data that was collected over a very long period of time, which can give researchers a way to view trends, relationships, and outcomes related to their research.

While the inability to change variables can be a disadvantage of some methods, it can be a benefit of archival research. That said, using historical records or information that was collected a long time ago also presents challenges. For one, important information might be missing or incomplete and some aspects of older studies might not be useful to researchers in a modern context.

A primary issue with archival research is reliability.When reviewing old research, little information might be available about who conducted the research, how a study was designed, who participated in the research, as well as how data was collected and interpreted.

Researchers can also be presented with ethical quandaries—for example, should modern researchers use data from studies that were conducted unethically or with questionable ethics?

You’ve probably heard the phrase, “correlation does not equal causation.” This means that while correlational research can suggest that there is a relationship between two variables, it cannot prove that one variable will change another.

For example, researchers might perform a correlational study that suggests there is a relationship between academic success and a person’s self-esteem. However, the study cannot show that academic success changes a person’s self-esteem.

To determine why the relationship exists, researchers would need to consider and experiment with other variables, such as the subject’s social relationships, cognitive abilities, personality, and socioeconomic status.

How Applied Research Is Used in Psychology

Frequently Asked QuestionsThe difference between a correlational study and an experimental study involves the manipulation of variables. Researchers do not manipulate variables in a correlational study, but they do control and systematically vary the independent variables in an experimental study. Correlational studies allow researchers to detect the presence and strength of a relationship between variables, while experimental studies allow researchers to look for cause and effect relationships.If the study involves the systematic manipulation of the levels of a variable, it is an experimental study. If researchers are measuring what is already present without actually changing the variables, then is a correlational study.The variables in a correlational study are what the researcher measures. Once measured, researchers can then use statistical analysis to determine the existence, strength, and direction of the relationship. However, while correlational studies can say that variable X and variable Y have a relationship, it does not mean that X causes Y.The goal of correlational research is often to look for relationships, describe these relationships, and then make predictions. Such research can also often serve as a jumping off point for future experimental research.

The difference between a correlational study and an experimental study involves the manipulation of variables. Researchers do not manipulate variables in a correlational study, but they do control and systematically vary the independent variables in an experimental study. Correlational studies allow researchers to detect the presence and strength of a relationship between variables, while experimental studies allow researchers to look for cause and effect relationships.

If the study involves the systematic manipulation of the levels of a variable, it is an experimental study. If researchers are measuring what is already present without actually changing the variables, then is a correlational study.

The variables in a correlational study are what the researcher measures. Once measured, researchers can then use statistical analysis to determine the existence, strength, and direction of the relationship. However, while correlational studies can say that variable X and variable Y have a relationship, it does not mean that X causes Y.

The goal of correlational research is often to look for relationships, describe these relationships, and then make predictions. Such research can also often serve as a jumping off point for future experimental research.

7 SourcesVerywell Mind uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Heath W.Psychology Research Methods. Cambridge University Press; 2018:134-156.Schneider FW.Applied Social Psychology. 2nd ed. SAGE; 2012:50-53.Curtis EA, Comiskey C, Dempsey O.Importance and use of correlational research.Nurse Researcher. 2016;23(6):20-25. doi:10.7748/nr.2016.e1382Carpenter S.Visualizing Psychology. 3rd ed. John Wiley & Sons; 2012:14-30.Pizarro J, Silver RC, Prause J.Physical and mental health costs of traumatic war experiences among civil war veterans.Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2006;63(2):193. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.63.2.193Post SG.The echo of Nuremberg: Nazi data and ethics.J Med Ethics. 1991;17(1):42-44. doi:10.1136/jme.17.1.42Lau F.Chapter 12 Methods for Correlational Studies. In: Lau F, Kuziemsky C, eds.Handbook of eHealth Evaluation: An Evidence-based Approach. University of Victoria.Additional ReadingAkoglu H.User’s guide to correlation coefficients.Turk J Emerg Med. 2018;18(3):91-93. doi:10.1016/j.tjem.2018.08.001Price PC.Research Methods in Psychology. California State University.

7 Sources

Verywell Mind uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Heath W.Psychology Research Methods. Cambridge University Press; 2018:134-156.Schneider FW.Applied Social Psychology. 2nd ed. SAGE; 2012:50-53.Curtis EA, Comiskey C, Dempsey O.Importance and use of correlational research.Nurse Researcher. 2016;23(6):20-25. doi:10.7748/nr.2016.e1382Carpenter S.Visualizing Psychology. 3rd ed. John Wiley & Sons; 2012:14-30.Pizarro J, Silver RC, Prause J.Physical and mental health costs of traumatic war experiences among civil war veterans.Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2006;63(2):193. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.63.2.193Post SG.The echo of Nuremberg: Nazi data and ethics.J Med Ethics. 1991;17(1):42-44. doi:10.1136/jme.17.1.42Lau F.Chapter 12 Methods for Correlational Studies. In: Lau F, Kuziemsky C, eds.Handbook of eHealth Evaluation: An Evidence-based Approach. University of Victoria.Additional ReadingAkoglu H.User’s guide to correlation coefficients.Turk J Emerg Med. 2018;18(3):91-93. doi:10.1016/j.tjem.2018.08.001Price PC.Research Methods in Psychology. California State University.

Verywell Mind uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.

Heath W.Psychology Research Methods. Cambridge University Press; 2018:134-156.Schneider FW.Applied Social Psychology. 2nd ed. SAGE; 2012:50-53.Curtis EA, Comiskey C, Dempsey O.Importance and use of correlational research.Nurse Researcher. 2016;23(6):20-25. doi:10.7748/nr.2016.e1382Carpenter S.Visualizing Psychology. 3rd ed. John Wiley & Sons; 2012:14-30.Pizarro J, Silver RC, Prause J.Physical and mental health costs of traumatic war experiences among civil war veterans.Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2006;63(2):193. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.63.2.193Post SG.The echo of Nuremberg: Nazi data and ethics.J Med Ethics. 1991;17(1):42-44. doi:10.1136/jme.17.1.42Lau F.Chapter 12 Methods for Correlational Studies. In: Lau F, Kuziemsky C, eds.Handbook of eHealth Evaluation: An Evidence-based Approach. University of Victoria.

Heath W.Psychology Research Methods. Cambridge University Press; 2018:134-156.

Schneider FW.Applied Social Psychology. 2nd ed. SAGE; 2012:50-53.

Curtis EA, Comiskey C, Dempsey O.Importance and use of correlational research.Nurse Researcher. 2016;23(6):20-25. doi:10.7748/nr.2016.e1382

Carpenter S.Visualizing Psychology. 3rd ed. John Wiley & Sons; 2012:14-30.

Pizarro J, Silver RC, Prause J.Physical and mental health costs of traumatic war experiences among civil war veterans.Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2006;63(2):193. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.63.2.193

Post SG.The echo of Nuremberg: Nazi data and ethics.J Med Ethics. 1991;17(1):42-44. doi:10.1136/jme.17.1.42

Lau F.Chapter 12 Methods for Correlational Studies. In: Lau F, Kuziemsky C, eds.Handbook of eHealth Evaluation: An Evidence-based Approach. University of Victoria.

Akoglu H.User’s guide to correlation coefficients.Turk J Emerg Med. 2018;18(3):91-93. doi:10.1016/j.tjem.2018.08.001Price PC.Research Methods in Psychology. California State University.

Akoglu H.User’s guide to correlation coefficients.Turk J Emerg Med. 2018;18(3):91-93. doi:10.1016/j.tjem.2018.08.001

Price PC.Research Methods in Psychology. California State University.

Meet Our Review Board

Share Feedback

Was this page helpful?Thanks for your feedback!What is your feedback?HelpfulReport an ErrorOtherSubmit

Was this page helpful?

Thanks for your feedback!

What is your feedback?HelpfulReport an ErrorOtherSubmit

What is your feedback?