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Key Takeaways
How We Learn From the Behavior of Others
The theory is an extension of social learning that includes the effects of cognitive processes — such as conceptions, judgment, and motivation — on an individual’s behavior and on the environment that influences them.
Numerous psychologists, such as Julian Rotter and the American personality psychologist Walter Mischel, have proposed different social-cognitive perspectives.
Albert Bandura (1989) introduced the most prominent perspective on social cognitive theory.
Bandura’s perspective has been applied to a wide range of topics, such as personality development and functioning, the understanding and treatment of psychological disorders, organizational training programs, education, health promotion strategies, advertising and marketing, and more.
The central tenet of Bandura’s social-cognitive theory is that people seek to develop a sense of agency and exert control over the important events in their lives.
Social cognitive theory can trace its origins to Bandura and his colleagues, in particular, a series of well-known studies on observational learning known as theBobo Doll experiments.
In these experiments, researchers exposed young, preschool-aged children to videos of an adult acting violently toward a large, inflatable doll.
This aggressive behavior included verbal insults and physical violence, such as slapping and punching. At the end of the video, the children either witnessed the aggressor being rewarded, or punished or received no consequences for his behavior (Schunk, 2012).
After being exposed to this model, the children were placed in a room where they were given the same inflatable Bobo doll.
The researchers found that those who had watched the model either received positive reinforcement or no consequences for attacking the doll were more likely to show aggressive behavior toward the doll (Schunk, 2012).
This experiment was notable for being one that introduced the concept of observational learning to humans.
Bandura’s ideas about observational learning were in stark contrast to those of previous behaviorists, such as B.F. Skinner.
According to Skinner (1950), learning can only be achieved through individual action.
Observational Learning
Bandura agreed with thebehavioriststhat behavior is learned through experience. However, he proposed a different mechanism than conditioning.
He argued that we learn throughobservation and imitationof others’ behavior.
This theory focuses not only on the behavior itself but also on the mental processes involved in learning, so it is not a pure behaviorist theory.
Stages of the Social Learning Theory (SLT)
Not all observed behaviors are learned effectively. There are several factors involving both the model and the observer that determine whether or not a behavior is learned. These include attention, retention, motor reproduction, and motivation (Bandura & Walters, 1963).
The individual needs to pay attention to the behavior and its consequences and form a mental representation of the behavior. Some of the things that influence attention involve characteristics of the model.
This means that the model must be salient or noticeable. If the model is attractive, prestigious, or appears to be particularly competent, you will pay more attention. And if the model seems more like yourself, you pay more attention.
The individual must be able (have the ability and skills) to physically reproduce the observed behavior. This means that the behavior must be within their capability. If it is not, they will not be able to learn it (Bandura, 1998).
Motivation
The observer must be motivated to perform the behavior. This motivation can come from a variety of sources, such as a desire to achieve a goal or avoid punishment.
Bandura (1977) proposed that motivation has three main components: expectancy, value, and affective reaction. Firstly, expectancy refers to the belief that one can successfully perform the behavior. Secondly, value refers to the importance of the goal that the behavior is meant to achieve.
The last of these, Affective reaction, refers to the emotions associated with the behavior.
If behavior is associated with positive emotions, it is more likely to be learned than a behavior associated with negative emotions. Reinforcement and punishment each play an important role in motivation.
Individuals must expect to receive the same positive reinforcement (vicarious reinforcement) for imitating the observed behavior that they have seen the model receiving.
Imitation is more likely to occur if the model (the person who performs the behavior) is positively reinforced. This is called vicarious reinforcement.
Imitation is also more likely if we identify with the model. We see them as sharing some characteristics with us, i.e., similar age, gender, and social status, as we identify with them.
The goal of social cognitive theory is to explain how people regulate their behavior through control and reinforcement in order to achieve goal-directed behavior that can be maintained over time.
Bandura, in his original formulation of the related social learning theory, included five constructs, adding self-efficacy to his final social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1986).
Reciprocal Determinism
Reciprocal determinism is the central concept of social cognitive theory and refers to the dynamic and reciprocal interaction of people — individuals with a set of learned experiences — the environment, external social context, and behavior — the response to stimuli to achieve goals.
Its main tenet is that people seek to develop a sense of agency and exert control over the important events in their lives.
To illustrate the concept of reciprocal determinism, Consider A student who believes they have the ability to succeed on an exam (self-efficacy) is more likely to put forth the necessary effort to study (behavior).
This, in turn, will affect future beliefs and behavior. If the student passes the exam, they are likely to believe they can do well on future exams and put forth the effort to study.
If they fail, they may doubt their abilities (Bandura, 1989).
Behavioral Capability
That is to say, in order to carry out any behavior, a person must know what to do and how to do it. People learn from the consequences of their behavior, further affecting the environment in which they live (Bandura, 1989).
Reinforcements
Reinforcements refer to the internal or external responses to a person’s behavior that affect the likelihood of continuing or discontinuing the behavior.
These reinforcements can be self-initiated or in one’s environment either positive or negative.Positive reinforcementsincrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated, while negative reinforcers decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.
Reinforcements can also be either direct or indirect. Direct reinforcements are an immediate consequence of a behavior that affects its likelihood, such as getting a paycheck for working (positive reinforcement).
Indirect reinforcements are not immediate consequences of behavior but may affect its likelihood in the future, such as studying hard in school to get into a good college (positive reinforcement) (Bandura, 1989).
Expectations
Expectations, meanwhile, refer to the anticipated consequences that a person has of their behavior.
Outcome expectations, for example, could relate to the consequences that someone foresees an action having on their health.
As people anticipate the consequences of their actions before engaging in a behavior, these expectations can influence whether or not someone completes the behavior successfully (Bandura, 1989).
Expectations largely come from someone’s previous experience. Nonetheless, expectancies also focus on the value that is placed on the outcome, something that is subjective from individual to individual.
For example, a student who may not be motivated to achieve high grades may place a lower value on taking the steps necessary to achieve them than someone who strives to be a high performer.
Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacyrefers to the level of a person’s confidence in their ability to successfully perform a behavior.
These factors are called barriers and facilitators (Bandura, 1989). Self-efficacy is often said to be task-specific, meaning that people can feel confident in their ability to perform one task but not another.
For example, a student may feel confident in their ability to do well on an exam but not feel as confident in their ability to make friends.
This is because self-efficacy is based on past experience and beliefs. If a student has never made friends before, they are less likely to believe that they will do so in the future.
Modeling Media and Social Cognitive Theory
Learning would be both laborious and hazardous in a world that relied exclusively on direct experience.
Social modeling provides a way for people to observe the successes and failures of others with little or no risk.
This modeling can take place on a massive scale.Modeling media is defined as “any type of mass communication—television, movies, magazines, music, etc.—that serves as a model for observing and imitating behavior” (Bandura, 1998).
This is because modeling provides a reference point for observers to imitate. When done effectively, modeling can prompt individuals to adopt certain behaviors that they may not have otherwise engaged in.
Additionally, modeling media can provide reinforcement for desired behaviors.
For example, if someone sees a model wearing a certain type of clothing and receives compliments for doing so themselves, they may be more likely to purchase clothing like that of the model.
Observational Learning Examples
There are numerous examples of observational learning in everyday life for people of all ages.
Nonetheless, observational learning is especially prevalent in the socialization of children. For example:
Social Learning vs. Social Cognitive Theory
Social learning theoryand Social Cognitive Theory are both theories of learning that place an emphasis on the role of observational learning.
However, there are several key differences between the two theories. Social learning theory focuses on the idea of reinforcement, while Social Cognitive Theory emphasizes the role of cognitive processes.
Additionally, social learning theory posits that all behavior is learned through observation, while Social Cognitive Theory allows for the possibility of learning through other means, such as direct experience.
Finally, social learning theory focuses on individualistic learning, while Social Cognitive Theory takes a more holistic view, acknowledging the importance of environmental factors.
Though they are similar in many ways, the differences between social learning theory and Social Cognitive Theory are important to understand. These theories provide different frameworks for understanding how learning takes place.
As such, they have different implications in all facets of their applications (Reed et al., 2010).
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Bandura, A. (1986).Fearful expectations and avoidant actions as coeffects of perceived self-inefficacy.
Bandura, A. (1989). Human agency in social cognitive theory.American psychologist, 44(9), 1175.
Bandura, A. (1998). Health promotion from the perspective of social cognitive theory.Psychology and health, 13(4), 623-649.
Bandura, A. Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1961). Transmission of aggression through the imitation of aggressive models.Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63, 575-582.
LaMort, W. (2019).The Social Cognitive Theory.Boston University.
Reed, M. S., Evely, A. C., Cundill, G., Fazey, I., Glass, J., Laing, A., … & Stringer, L. C. (2010). What is social learning?.Ecology and society, 15(4).
Schunk, D. H. (2012).Social cognitive theory.
Skinner, B. F. (1950). Are theories of learning necessary?.Psychological Review, 57(4), 193.
Saul McLeod, PhD
BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester
Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.
Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc
BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education
Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.
Charlotte NickersonResearch Assistant at Harvard UniversityUndergraduate at Harvard UniversityCharlotte Nickerson is a student at Harvard University obsessed with the intersection of mental health, productivity, and design.
Charlotte NickersonResearch Assistant at Harvard UniversityUndergraduate at Harvard University
Charlotte Nickerson
Research Assistant at Harvard University
Undergraduate at Harvard University
Charlotte Nickerson is a student at Harvard University obsessed with the intersection of mental health, productivity, and design.
