On This Page:ToggleRisk factors in the development of addiction (AO1)Explanations for nicotine addictionLearning TheoryExplanations for gambling addictionReducing addictionApplying theories of behavior change to addictive behavior
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Describing Addiction
Addiction is included in the Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM 5) in the category “Substance-related and Addictive Disorders.”
The only behavior included is gambling, as not enough research on other behavior, such as internet use, has been carried out to justify their inclusion.
Dependence(AO1)
Physical dependence: occurs when a person has used a substance so often and in such amount that they experience withdrawal symptoms when they stop using the substance.
Psychological dependence: this is an emotional need to use a substance or perform a behavior that has no underlying physical need. e.g., when people stop smoking, they recover physically in a very short time, but their emotional need for nicotine takes a lot longer.
Tolerance(AO1)
Tolerance is shown when a person has a diminished response to a drug as a result of repeated use. The individual has to increase the dose of the substance to obtain the same effects as their initial response.
Tolerance is a physical effect of repeated use of a drug, not necessarily a sign of addiction. Tolerance can develop into many types of drugs: legal such as benzodiazepam (Valium), and illegal, such as cocaine.
Withdrawal Syndrome(AO1)
This occurs in drug and alcohol-addicted individuals who discontinue or reduce the use of the drug. This is due to the fact that the brain has adjusted its functioning to the presence of the drug. When the level is reduced, or the drug is absent, the brain seeks the substance to bring the level back up.
This can lead to very unpleasant psychological symptoms such as depression andanxietyand physical symptoms such as nausea, loss of sleep, and weight loss.
The type and severity of the symptoms depend on the type of drug, the amount used, and the length of time the substance has been used.
Fear of withdrawal syndrome often motivates people to carry on using the drug.
AO2 Scenario Question
Marie started smoking a few years ago and used to find smoking relaxing. However, she now finds that despite smoking a lot more than she used to, cigarettes don’t help her relax as much as they did when she first started.
Use your knowledge of the key features of addiction to explain what is happening to Marie.
(4 marks)
Marie smokes a lot more than when she started because she has developed nicotine physical dependence. She has used nicotine so often and in such amount that she experiences withdrawal symptoms when she does not smoke for a short period of time so she feels the urge to smoke a lot more often than when she started.
She has also developed tolerance for nicotine, she has a diminished response to nicotine as a result of repeated use this is why she does not find that cigarettes don’t help her relax as much as they used to. She has to increase the dose of the substance to obtain the same effects as her initial response of relaxation.
Risk factors in the development of addiction(AO1)
Genetic vulnerabilityAO1
For example, generally, Europeans metabolize alcohol quickly, so they do not feel sick, but 50% of Asians metabolize alcohol slowly, so they feel very nauseous after drinking even a small amount of alcohol. As a result, they are unlikely to become addicted to alcohol.
There has to be a gene-environment interaction as, obviously, if the individual is not exposed to the drug, they are not going to become addicted.
EvaluationAO3
StressAO1
High levels of stress make people more vulnerable to addiction. They might turn to substances or behavior that give them temporary relief as a coping mechanism. However, addiction is less likely in stressful situations if there are mediating factors such as social support.
The stress could be due to the social environment, such as family but also where people live. There are more people addicted to drugs in cities than in the countryside; however, this could be due to the fact that drugs are more easily available in the urban environment.
PersonalityAO1
Eysenck (1997) proposed that some personality types were more prone to addiction. For example, those withhigh neuroticism(high levels of irritability and anxiety) and those with high psychoticism (aggressive and emotionally detached).
Family influencesAO1
Two key features of family influences: Social Learning Theory and perceived parental approval:
Social Learning Theory or social learning – AO1:
The individual (child or adolescent) observes their parents smoking or drinking and the results of the behavior, e.g., the parents feel more relaxed or seem to experience pleasure; the individual imitates the behavior to get the same result. Over time and repeated exposures, the individual becomes addicted.
Perceived parental approval- AO1:
The adolescent perceives that their parents have a positive or at least a permissive attitude towards a particular drug or addictive behavior such as gambling. This perception might be based on the fact that their parents take the drug themselves or do not monitor their behavior, e.g., let the teenager drink to excess at home.
Peers- AO1:
The influence of peers is greater than the influence of the family, according to Quine and Stephenson 1990.
O’Connell suggests that there are three features of peer influence that lead to addiction to alcohol or other drugs.
Julie comes from a family of drinkers. She began drinking vodka with her school friends at 12. Now in her early twenties, she has tried to stop drinking but finds it difficult, especially now that she has a very busy and demanding job.
Explain risk factors relevant to Julie’s addiction to drinking.
Another possible reason is that she has a demanding job which increases her stress, so she might turn to drinking as a coping mechanism because it gives her temporary relief.
Explanations for nicotine addiction
Brain neurochemistry
Desensitization hypothesis – AO1:
Acetylcholine (ACh) is a neurotransmitter that, like all neurotransmitters, binds with receptors and activates post-synaptic neurons. One subtype of ACh receptors is called nicotinic receptors, and they bind with both nicotine and ACh.
When nicotine binds with nicotinic receptors, the neuron becomes become stimulated; however, almost immediately, the receptors shut down, and the neuron does not respond to any neurotransmitters (desensitization).
This also leads to the production of dopamine in thenucleus accumbens. This generates a pleasurable feeling, increased alertness, and a reduction of anxiety.
Nicotine regulation model – AO1:
When the smoker does not take nicotine for a prolonged period of time, the nicotine is metabolized and excreted, and the nicotinic receptors become sensitized again, giving rise to feelings of agitation and anxiety (withdrawal symptoms) which motivate the individual to smoke.
The repetition of this cycle creates chronic desensitization of the nicotinic receptors, so the intake of nicotine has to increase to produce the same effects (tolerance).
Furthermore, the prolonged use of nicotine results in an increase in the number of nicotinic receptors.
Nicotine also stimulates the release of glutamates which also increase and speed up the release of dopamine, thus increasing the rewarding effects of nicotine.
Josh has been a heavy smoker for many years. He has tried to give up, but the urge to smoke is so strong that he has failed every time. He always has a cigarette before he goes to bed, and smoking is the first thing he does when he wakes up. He always says that the first cigarette in the morning is the best cigarette of the day.
Use your knowledge of the brain neurochemistry explanation of nicotine addiction to explain Josh’s behavior. (4 marks)
When Josh smokes a cigarette, the nicotine in the tobacco gets absorbed into the bloodstream and very quickly travels to his brain. There it binds with nicotinic receptors, and the neurons become stimulated; however, almost immediately, the receptors shut down, and the neurons do not respond to any neurotransmitters (desensitization).
This also leads to the production of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens. This generates a pleasurable feeling, increased alertness, and a reduction of anxiety. However, Josh does not smoke during the night, so the nicotine is metabolized and excreted, and the nicotinic receptors become sensitized again, giving rise to feelings of agitation and anxiety (withdrawal symptoms), and he wakes up with a craving for a cigarette.
The first cigarette of the day is the best because the receptors were sensitized, so he feels the effects of nicotine more than after the other cigarettes he smokes during the day, as he often smokes enough to avoid the unpleasant effects of abstinence when he is awake.
Learning Theory
The learning theory explanation of nicotine addiction aims to explain the initiation, maintenance, and relapse of nicotine addiction.
Initiation-> Social Learning Theory (SLT)
Maintenance -> Operant conditioning
Relapse -> Cue reactivity
Social Learning Theory (SLT) – AO1:
SLT suggests that people begin to smoke, particularly when they are young, due to learning from their social environment. They observe people, e.g., peers or parents smoking, and the consequences of the behavior, e.g., they enjoy it, they look “cool,” and are popular (vicarious reinforcements).
So they imitate the behavior- smoking- to get the same reinforcements.
Mayeux et al. (2008) carried out alongitudinal studyand found significant positive correlations between smoking at 16 and popularity two years later in boys. However, they found a negative relationship in girls between smoking at 16 and popularity at 18.
This suggests that popularity might act as a vicarious reinforcement than a direct positive reinforcement for boys but not for girls.
Operant conditioning – AO1:
Nicotine leads to a release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens, and this produces a mild feeling of euphoria, thus rewarding the behavior (smoking).
However, not smoking gives rise to feelings of agitation and anxiety, and this acts as anegative reinforcement. Therefore, the behavior – of smoking- is more likely to be repeated to avoid withdrawal symptoms.
Cue reactivity- Classical conditioning – AO1:
Cue reactivity is the theory that people associate situations (e.g., meeting with friends)/ places (e.g., pub) with the rewarding effects of nicotine, and these cues can trigger a feeling of craving.
These factors become smoking-related cues. Prolonged use of nicotine creates an association between these factors and smoking.
They can produce the conditioned response (CR). However, if the brain has not received nicotine, the levels of dopamine drop, and the individual experiences withdrawal symptoms; therefore, are more likely to feel the need to smoke in the presence of the cues that have become associated with the use of nicotine.
Social Learning Theory (SLT) – AO3:
William is 25 years old, he has been smoking since he was 14, and he has decided to give up because he wants to run a marathon next year. He is really struggling, especially on Friday and Saturday nights when he goes out with his friends to pubs and clubs. He also has an overwhelming urge to smoke when he has had a stressful day.
Using your knowledge of the learning theory explanation of nicotine addiction, explain why William is struggling to abstain from cigarettes. (4 marks)
William has come to associate pubs and clubs with the rewarding effects of smoking over time, so they have become smoking-related cues.
They can produce an increase in dopamine with the related feelings of pleasure and reduced anxiety; however, following this increase, the brain tries to lower the dopamine back to a normal level.
But, as William’s brain has not received nicotine as he no longer smokes, the levels of dopamine drop, and William experiences withdrawal symptoms. This is why he is struggling more in the presence of these cues.
Furthermore, he is also struggling after a stressful day because he is craving the negative reinforcement (decreased anxiety) that nicotine used to provide when he smoked.
Explanations for gambling addiction
Social Learning Theory (SLT)
SLT suggests that people begin to gamble due to learning from their social environment. They observe people, e.g., peers or parents, gambling and the consequences of the behavior, e.g., they enjoy the excitement, and they win money (vicarious reinforcements). So they imitate the behavior- gambling- to get the same reinforcements.
Operant conditioning
A reinforcement is anything that makes a behavior more likely to be repeated.
Positive reinforcement: anything that rewards the behavior, e.g., winning money, the excitement of betting, the social life associated with betting, e.g., in casinos and betting shops.
Variable ratio reinforcement: When the behavior was only rewarded unpredictably (only now and then, and it is impossible to say when the reward will occur), then the behavior took longer to learn, but once learned, it was very resistant to extinction.
Variable ratio reinforcementis a type of partial reinforcement. Applying the theory to gambling: A fruit machine might be set to give a payout on average every 30 games.
However, an individual might win at the 5th game and then not until the 47th game (variable ratio), but the individual will carry on playing despite the losses waiting for the reward.
Evaluation(AO3)
Alice started going to the casino with her friends and, at the start, did not really enjoy it, but she had two big wins and a few near misses. Then she found that she started looking forward to going back every weekend. Now she places bets online when she cannot go to the casino and realized last month that she had spent over half her wages in that way.
Using your knowledge of the learning theory explanation of gambling addiction to explain Alice’s addiction. (4 marks)
However, the reinforcements are received only intermittently and unpredictably (variable reinforcement). For example, a fruit machine might be set to give a payout on average every 30 games. However, an individual might win at the 5th game and then not until the 47th game (variable ratio), but the individual will carry on playing despite the losses waiting for the reward.
The behavior takes longer to learn, but once learned, it is very resistant to extinction. Furthermore, Parke & Griffiths (2004) found support for the reinforcing role of winning but also of “near-win” (coming very close to winning, e.g., the horse comes second).
Cognitive theory explanation for gambling addictionAO1
The cognitive theory explains gambling in terms of irrational/ maladaptive thought processes. It focuses on the reasons people give for gambling.
ACognitive Biasis a pattern of thinking and processing information about the world that produces distorted perceptions, attention, and memory of people and situations around us.
These biases operate at an automatic and pre-conscious level, but they influence attention and memory linked to the behavior.
Rickwood et al. (2010) identified four main categories of cognitive biases:
Ben plays the lottery every week; he could do it online but says he would not win this way. He always goes to the same shop at the same time, always uses his lucky pen, and chooses his numbers with care after examining the results of the 12 previous weeks, where he identifies patterns.
Using your knowledge of the cognitive approach, explain Ben’s behavior. (4 marks)
Reducing addiction
Drug Treatments
There are three basic types of drug treatments:
Of these treatments, only the agonists prevent withdrawal symptoms, so patients receiving aversive or antagonist drugs might require additional treatments to alleviate these unpleasant symptoms, e.g., anxiolytics such as benzodiazepines (Valium), to reduce anxiety.
Drug therapy for nicotine addiction – AO1:
Nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) uses patches, gums, and inhalers to deliver nicotine, the psychoactive substance in tobacco, in a less harmful and more controlled way than smoking.
NRT uses “clean” means to release nicotine in the bloodstream. Although it still increases heart rate and blood pressure, it is not being taken with the cocktail of other harmful chemicals that are found in tobacco products such as cigarettes.
Nicotine acts in the same way as tobacco products. It stimulates the nicotinic receptors, releasing dopamine in the nucleus accumbens, thus producing sensations of pleasure and reducing anxiety.
Over time the amount of nicotine is reduced gradually. For example, the patches are reduced in size, so the withdrawal symptoms are managed over a period of two to three months.
They found no overall difference in effectiveness between different forms of NRT (patches, spray, or gums). This supports the effectiveness of the treatment but also supports the biological explanation of nicotine addiction.
Drug treatment for gambling addiction – AO1:
There is no specific drug to treat gambling addiction. However, naltrexone, usually used for the treatment of heroin addiction, is used in the U.S. because of the similarities between gambling addiction and substance abuse.
Like nicotine, heroin, and other drugs, gambling leads to the release of dopamine, thus activating the reward system.
Naltrexone, an opiate antagonist, reduces the release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens therefore decreasing the feeling of pleasure and increasing the release of GABA in the mesolimbic system, which is a neurotransmitter that decreases cravings.
In the UK, naltrexone is used only for the treatment of heroin addiction. However, in the USA, it is becoming more widely used for other addictions.
A significant issue with naltrexone is that this drug can have serious side effects such as anxiety, drowsiness, fatigue, panic attack, and depression.
Furthermore, this drug could also stop patients from feeling pleasure in all other areas of their life, which leads to non-compliance (the patients stop taking the drug), which reduces the effectiveness of the treatment.
Kim, 2001 carried out a 12-week double-blind placebo-controlled trial of naltrexone and found that a dose of 188 mg/day reduced the frequency and intensity of gambling urges, as well as the behavior itself in 45 pathological gamblers compared to the placebo group.
Mia is addicted to cigarettes. She has smoked 20-30 cigarettes a day for over 10 years. She realizes that it is bad for her health and costs her a lot of money which she could use for other more enjoyable things like a holiday. She wants to stop smoking but has tried before and has failed. She has decided to use nicotine patches this time but is concerned about the withdrawal symptoms.
Explained to Mia how nicotine patches work and the benefits of using them.
Nicotine patches are a form of Nicotine Replacement Therapy (NRT). They deliver nicotine, the psychoactive substance in tobacco, in a less harmful and more controlled way than smoking.
NRT uses “clean” means to release nicotine in the bloodstream, although it still increases heart rate and blood pressure, it is not being taken with the cocktail of other harmful chemicals that are found in tobacco products such as cigarettes, so her breathing should improve.
The nicotine acts in the same way as tobacco products. It stimulates the nicotinic receptors, releasing dopamine in thenucleus accumbens, thus producing sensations of pleasure and reducing anxiety.
So Mia does not need to worry about the withdrawal symptoms, she might miss holding a cigarette in her hand but she will not have any of the symptoms associated with stopping nicotine, such as anxiety and low mood, so she is more likely to succeed in her attempt.
Behavioral interventions
Aversion therapy – AO1:
This is based on classical conditioning. According to the learning theory, two stimuli become associated when they frequently occur together (pairing). In addiction the drug, alcohol, or behavior, in the case of gambling, becomes associated with pleasure and high arousal.
Aversion therapy uses the same principle but changes the association and replaces the pleasure with an unpleasant state (counterconditioning).
Patients are given an aversive drug which causes vomiting-emetic drug. They start experiencing nausea. At this point, they are given a drink smelling strongly of alcohol, and they start vomiting almost immediately.
The treatment is repeated with a higher dose of the drug.
Another treatment involves the use of disulfiram (e.g., Antabuse). This drug interferes with the metabolism of alcohol. Normally alcohol is broken down into acetaldehyde and then into acetic acid (vinegar).
Disulfiram prevents the second stage from occurring, leading to a very high level of acetaldehyde which is the main component of hangovers. This results in severe throbbing headaches, increased heart rate, palpitations, nausea, and vomiting.
For behavioral addictions such as gambling, electric shocks are used, these are painful but do not cause damage.The gambler creates cue cards with key phrases they associate with their gambling and then similar cards for neutral statements.
As they read through the statements, they administer a two-second electric shock for each gambling-related statement. The patient set the intensity of the shock themselves, aiming to make the shock painful but distressing.
Covert sensitization – AO1:
This is more likely to be used now than aversion therapy. It is also based on the principle of counterconditioning.
Rather than experiencing electric shocks or vomiting, the client is asked to imagine how it would feel to experience these. This is called in vitro conditioning.
The client is asked first to relax and then to imagine an aversive situation, for example, feeling sick, vomiting, or seeing a snake coiled around their drink if they are afraid of snakes. The therapist encourages the client to go into a lot of detail, mentally picturing the color, texture, smell, etc.
Then they imagine themselves smoking, drinking, or gambling whilst thinking about the unpleasant consequences. These might include smoking cigarettes smeared with faces.
The aim is to make the scene as vivid as possible to create a strong association. It is thought that the more negative the imagined situation, the greater the chance of success.
Evaluation of behavioral interventions as a way to reduce addiction(AO3)
Melanie has been smoking for many years. She had tried to give up smoking many times but failed even when she used the nicotine patches.
She is getting very concerned about her cough in the morning, which she thinks is due to her smoking. Her doctor advised her to consider aversion therapy. She is not sure what it consists of and asks for your advice.
Using your knowledge of behavioral interventions to reduce addiction, explain how aversion therapy might help Melanie to stop smoking and whether you would recommend this treatment.
(6 marks)
Aversion therapy is based on classical conditioning. According to the learning theory, two stimuli become associated when they frequently occur together (pairing).
In Melanie’s case, cigarettes have become associated with pleasure and relaxation. Aversion therapy uses the same principle but changes the association and replaces the pleasure with an unpleasant state (counterconditioning).
In Melanie’s case, she might be given an electric shock every time she sees a picture of a cigarette or reaches for a lighter. After repeated pairings, she should come to associate cigarettes with electric shocks and stop smoking.
Aversion therapy can be effective for alcohol addiction. For example, Meyer & Chesser (1970) found that with aversion therapy, 50% of alcoholics abstained for at least a year and that the treatment was more successful than no treatment.
However, it is an unpleasant treatment, and she might find it difficult to comply and give up the treatment before the association between cigarettes and the pain of the electric shocks is strong enough to stop her from smoking.
Furthermore, aversion focuses on the behavior but does not address the underlying cause of addiction, such as biological factors, cognitive biases, or social environment (i.e., the thing that is leading them to addictive behavior in the first place). A more holistic treatment, such as a combination of nicotine replacement therapy and cognitive behavioral therapy, might be more effective to achieve a lasting improvement.
Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)
The second aim is to help the client to develop strategies to avoid situations that trigger addiction behavior (skills training).
Functional analysis – AO1:
The client and the therapist identify the situations in which he/she is likely to gamble/take drugs or drink alcohol. They explore the thoughts and motivations before, during, and after the event in an attempt to help the patient to identify “faulty thinking,” cognitive distortions, or cognitive biases.
Skills training – AO1:
Cognitive restructuring: the treatment helps the client in modifying their irrational beliefs and cognitive biases.
Specific skills: The aim is to enable the client to cope with situations that lead to drinking/gambling or drug use. The skills taught vary depending on the client’s needs. They may include assertiveness training to help an alcoholic firmly but politely refuse a drink offered at a party.
Social skills: These skills help people avoid situations likely to result in a lapse in managing social situations more effectively. The therapist explains and models the behavior then the client imitates the behavior in a role play.
Evaluation of cognitive interventions as a way to reduce addiction(AO3)
Applying theories of behavior change to addictive behavior
Theory of planned behavior (TPB)
Personal attitudes– This is our personal attitude towards a particular behavior. It is the sum of all our knowledge, attitudes, and prejudices, positive and negative, that we think of when we consider behavior. For example, our individual attitude to smoking might include tobacco is relaxing and makes me feel good, but it makes me cough in the morning, costs a lot of money, and smells bad.
Subjective norms– This considers how we view the ideas of other people about a specific behavior, e.g., smoking. This could be the attitude of family and friends, and colleagues toward smoking. It is not what other people think but our perception of others’ attitudes.
Perceived behavioral control– This is the extent to which we believe we can control our behavior (self-efficacy).This depends on our perception of internal factors, such as our own ability and determination, and external factors, such as the resources and support available to us.
The theory argues that our perception of behavioral control has two effects:
Miguel smokes about 40 cigarettes a day and is concerned that it is affecting his health negatively. He is also concerned about the cost. His family and his colleagues want him to quit. However, he does not feel he has the willpower to do so.
Using your knowledge of the theory of planned behavior, explain whether Miguel is likely to quit smoking successfully. (4 marks)
Miguel has a positive personal attitude toward quitting as he realizes that smoking is affecting his health, and he is concerned about the cost of smoking.
He also has a subjective norm which should help him in his attempt, as his family and colleagues make it clear that they want him to quit. However, he does not have the perceived behavioral control (self-efficacy) as he does not believe that he can quit smoking.
According to the theory of planned behavior, this is the most important factor in determining whether he would succeed. This makes him unlikely to succeed if he attempts to stop smoking.
Prochaska’s six-stage model of behavior change
Prochaska and DiClemente (1983) noticed that the change from unhealthy behavior (smoking) to healthy behavior (not smoking) is complex and involves a series of stages.
These stages do not happen in a linear order. The process is often cyclical. Some stages may be missed, or the addicts might go back to an earlier stage before progressing again.
The model considers how ready people are to quit the addiction and adapts intervention to the stage the client is at.
Stages of Prochaska’s model of behavior change
Precontemplation
Contemplation
People have become increasingly aware that they need to change. They consider the advantages and the cost of changing. This stage can last for a long time. At this stage, intervention should help the client see that the pros outweigh the cons.
- Preparation
At this stage, the individual has decided to change but has not got a plan on how to do it yet. Any intervention should focus on helping the client to decide which support will be needed to achieve the change successfully, e.g., contact GP, specialized clinics, or helpline.
- Action
At this stage, people change their behavior, e.g., they get rid of all tobacco products and lighters …. Relapse can happen. Intervention should focus on supporting the individual with practical help, praise, and rewards, to maintain the change.
- Maintenance
The individual has maintained the change for at least six months and is growing in confidence that the change can be permanent. Intervention at this stage focuses on strategies learned to prevent relapse, e.g., emphasizing the benefits of stopping the addiction…
- Termination
The change is permanent and stable. Abstinence is now automatic; there is no relapse. Some people do not achieve this stage and remain in the maintenance stage for many years. Relapse for them is still possible.
Layla has been smoking for a few months now, but she realizes that it is affecting her health and costing her a lot of money. On the other hand, she feels that she enjoys her first cigarette in the morning and that cigarettes help her relax when she is stressed at work.
With reference to Prochaska’s model of behavior change, explain which stage Layla is at. Justify your answer. (4 marks)
Layla is at the contemplation stage of the model, which is the second stage. She has become aware that she needs to change her smoking habit as this is affecting her health and costing her a lot of money.
She is considering the advantages, in her case, better health and some savings, and the disadvantages, such as the lack of enjoyment of her first cigarette of the day and having to find another way to deal with the stress at work.
This stage can last for a long time. At this stage, intervention should help Layla to see that the pros outweigh the cons.
Saul McLeod, PhD
BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester
Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.
Elisabeth BrookesPsychology TeacherBSc (Hons), PsychologyElisabeth Brookes has worked as a psychology teacher at Luton Sixth Form College.
Elisabeth BrookesPsychology TeacherBSc (Hons), Psychology
Elisabeth Brookes
Psychology Teacher
BSc (Hons), Psychology
Elisabeth Brookes has worked as a psychology teacher at Luton Sixth Form College.
