On This Page:ToggleExpressions of GenderGender Identity vs. ExpressionGenderfluidityChildhoodChallengesSupporting Gender NonconformityHistoryCultural differences On This Page:Toggle On This Page: Gender nonconforming is when an individual’s appearance, behavior, interests, and self-concept vary, either from the norms attributed to their biological sex or from masculine and feminine norms in general.Very few people fully conform to all gender norms for their assigned gender. This may not mean that everyone is gender non-conforming. Instead, it describes someone who intentionally subverts these gender norms....

On This Page:ToggleDefinitionCross-Sectional vs. Longitudinal ResearchSequential MethodExamples On This Page:Toggle On This Page: Key TakeawaysCohort effects describe how studying populations in different “cohorts” — having been born in a different time or region or having different life experiences — can alter the outcomes of studies.Norman Ryder first popularized sociological cohort effects as a means of providing a record of social and structural change.Researchers must weigh convenience and mitigating cohort effects when designing studies in psychology and medicine....

On This Page:ToggleMania vs. HypomaniaSignsTreatment On This Page:Toggle On This Page: A manic episode is a period of abnormally elevated, expansive, or irritable mood and heightened energy or activity. It’s a defining feature of bipolar disorder. Symptoms include increased self-esteem, decreased need for sleep, talkativeness, racing thoughts, distractibility, increased goal-directed activity, and risky behavior. An episode can impair judgment and social functioning.Manic episodes usually begin abruptly and last between 2 weeks and 4-5 months (median duration of about four months)....

Hypervigilance is a key feature of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), involving a heightened state of sensory sensitivity and alertness for potential threats. Individuals with PTSD often experience chronic hypervigilance along with recurrent trauma memories and flashbacks after encountering a severely distressing event. People with hypervigilance perpetually feel on edge, as though danger could arise at any moment. Their body may be on high alert constantly, making them jumpy, irritable, and unable to relax....

On This Page:ToggleDefinitionSelf-Image vs. Self-ConceptImplicationsImproving Self-ImageExamples On This Page:Toggle On This Page: Key Takeaways While self-image is how we see and evaluate ourselves. In contrast, self-concept is a broader idea that includes our beliefs, expectations, and knowledge about ourselves. Definition & Characteristics Suzaan Oltman, for example, says that the three elements of self-image are (Oltman, 2014): The Physical Dimension: how someone evaluates their appearance.The Psychological Dimension: how someone evaluates their personality....

On This Page:ToggleSociobiology TheoryInclusive FitnessThe “Problem of Altruism”Sexual Selection and Sexual Conflict“Selfish Genes” and Intragenomic ConflictExamples On This Page:Toggle On This Page: Key Points Sociobiology is the study of the biological basis of social behavior in organisms. Sociobiologists stress the organism of entire social populations over the behaviors of individuals.Scientists have been discussing concepts akin to sociobiology since the 1940s, and major thinkers – such as Hamilton and Williams – published theories of sociobiology in the 1960s....

On This Page:ToggleBiographyReich vs. FreudBion ExperimentsT-bacilli experimentsCharacter AnalysisOrgone EnergyControversy On This Page:Toggle On This Page: Key Takeaways Biography Wilhelm Reich was a psychoanalyst who developed a number of radical psychoanalytical and physical theories. An apprentice of Freud, he believed that neuroses, as well as physical illnesses such as cancer, derived from a lack of “orgone energy” in the body. Reich proposed that this energy could be restored through treatments such as generating sexual organisms and sitting in an orgone-accumulation box....

On This Page:ToggleOriginsInitial ExperimentsReplicabilityImplications On This Page:Toggle On This Page: Key Takeaways Origins of the Zeigarnik Effect The Zeigarnik Effect is the tendency for tasks that have been interrupted and uncompleted to be better remembered than tasks that have been completed. Bluma Zeigarnik (1927) first saw this effect in waiters, who seemed to remember orders only so long as the order was in the process of being served and promptly forgot the order as soon as it was finished....

Updated 12/13/2024 Even though communication is essential to maintaining a healthy relationship, it’s something that many people — and couples — struggle with. When you don’t know how to communicate in a relationship, you and your partner will be more likely to argue, have miscommunications, or hurt each other’s feelings. Thankfully, communication is a skill that can be taught and developed. With the right strategies and tools, you can learn how to communicate in healthy, productive, and effective ways....

Marital issues affect most — dare we say all — couples at some point. That said, no matter how serious or trivial marriage problems might seem, most of the time you can work together to get back on track. The majority of marriagescanbe helped, and research shows thatcouples therapyis effective for an estimated70%of couples who try it.The most important thing to know is that marital strife is common. Some problems seem to be more common than others....

Updated on 10/06/23 Not all abuse is the same, so exactly what is emotional abuse? Simply put, it’s a form of abuse where one person (the abuser) uses emotions to control someone else. Emotionally abusive people may use insults, criticism, threats, and other tactics to hurt and control their victim.Emotional abuse or psychological abuse refers to a pattern of mistreatment, rather than a standalone incident. Over time, it can distort the victim’s perception, eroding their self-confidence and damaging their mental health....

Abuse can take many forms — this includes (the often-ignored) verbal abuse. Although you may not get physical scars from verbal abuse like you would physical abuse or sexual abuse, the emotional scars are just as traumatizing. Parents (or any other family member) who are verbally abusive use words to demean, control, ridicule, or manipulate their children. Aside from verbal abuse, some emotionally abusive parents also use neglect, emotional manipulation, and other abusive behavior toward their children....

Updated 08/13/2024 That old saying you don’t have to hit to hurt is not wrong. Abuse doesn’t always involve physical violence. Language can be a way for an abuser to hurt and control their victim. Verbal abuse is a form of psychological abuse or emotional abuse that involves spoken and written words and, sometimes, even body language like gestures. Learn more about the signs, examples, and effects of verbal abuse, and how talking to anonline therapistcan help if you are experiencing it....

While some bullies have multiple targets, others harass a single person. Workplace bullying isn’t always obvious, so a bully’s behavior may go undetected if it’s not reported. Just because this type of bullying often involves adults doesn’t mean that it’s something that people always know how to handle. The truth is, the psychological effects of bullying can be damaging and painful, regardless of age. Read on to learn how to identify and stop bullying at work....

Updated 11/15/23A happy marriage requires commitment and dedication from both partners. It can be emotionally taxing to balance careers, raise children, manage financial obligations, and deal with extended family and other relationships. When marriage problems come up, it’s important to address them promptly and productively if you want to stay with your partner in a healthy relationship.Winning relationships require work, so you’ll need to be proactive and invest time. From getting back the romance to infusing more day-to-day conversation, here are six therapist-approved tips for improving your partnership for the long haul....