On This Page:ToggleStigma and Discrimination The Roots of Labeling TheoryFormal and Informal LabelingLabeling and Deviant BehaviorExamples On This Page:Toggle On This Page: Key TakeawaysLabeling theory is an approach in the sociology of deviance that focuses on the ways in which the agents of social control attach stigmatizing stereotypes to particular groups, and the ways in which the stigmatized change their behavior once labeled.Labeling theory is associated with the work of Becker and is a reaction to sociological theories, which examine only the characteristics of the deviants rather than the agencies that controlled them....

On This Page:ToggleAimProcedureFindingsConclusionCritical EvaluationQuestions On This Page:Toggle On This Page: Jones, M. C. (1924). A laboratory study of fear: The case of Peter.Pedagogical Seminary, 31, 308-315. The Little Peter, Cover-Jones (1924) experiment aimed to reduce a child’s fear of rabbits by gradually exposing him to them while simultaneously providing a positive association through the presence of enjoyable activities, leading to successful desensitization. Aim Mary Cover-Jones studied several children to investigate the best way to remove fear responses in children....

On This Page:ToggleCharles Cooley’s Looking-Glass SelfGoffman’s The Presentation of Self in Everyday LifeMead’s ConceptualizationSymbolic InteractionismExamplesCritical EvaluationReferencesFurther Information On This Page:Toggle On This Page: Key Takeaways: The looking glass self is a sociological concept that one’s self grows out of society’s interpersonal interactions and the perceptions of others, meaning people shape themselves based on how other people see and judge them. Charles Cooley’s Looking-Glass Self The ideas and feelings that people have about themselves —their self-concept or self-image— are developed in response to their perception and internalization of how others perceive and evaluate them (Chandler and Munday, 2011)....

On This Page:ToggleEmpirical ResearchLow Self-Esteem in ChildrenLow Self-Esteem in Teenagers On This Page:Toggle On This Page: Self-esteem should be viewed as a continuum and can be high, medium, or low, and it is often quantified as a number in empirical research. When considering self-esteem, it is important to note that both high and low levels can be emotionally and socially harmful to the individual. Indeed it is thought an optimum level of self-esteem lies in the middle of the continuum....

On This Page:ToggleOverviewZajonc’s EvidenceOther FactorsExamples On This Page:Toggle On This Page: The mere exposure effect is acognitive biaswhere individuals show a preference for things they’re more familiar with. Repeated exposure to a stimulus increases liking and familiarity, even without conscious recognition. Essentially, the more we encounter something, the more we tend to prefer it, based on familiarity alone.SummaryAccording to the mere exposure effect, people show an increased liking for stimuli as they are exposed to them more....

On This Page:ToggleMerton’s Theory of DevianceAgnew’s TheoryExamplesInstitutional Anomie Theory On This Page:Toggle On This Page: Key takeawaysSocial inequality can create situations where people experience tension (or strain) between the goals society says they should be working toward (like financial success) and the legitimate means they have available to meet those goals.According to Merton’s strain theory, societal structures can pressure individuals into committing crimes. Classic Strain Theory predicts that deviance is likely to happen when there is a misalignment between the “cultural goals” of a society (such as monetary wealth) and the opportunities people have to obtain them....

On This Page:ToggleHow it Works A- and B-ProcessesExamplesImplicationsOpponents of OPT On This Page:Toggle On This Page: Key Takeaways Opponent process theory proposes that emotions and motivational states have an opposite counterpart that gets activated after the initial emotion fades. For example, joy’s opposite is sadness, and fear’s opposite is relief. The theory suggests these opponent states explain emotional dynamics like thrill-seeking behaviors and drug addiction. How it Works: A- and B-Processes For the purposes of simplification, the initial process will be referred to as process A while the triggering response will be referred to as process B....

On This Page:ToggleOverviewHow It WorksControversyExamples On This Page:Toggle On This Page: Key Takeaways History and Overview The Electra Complex, the female equivalent of theOedipus Complex, is a term in neo-Freudian psychology that refers to a daughter developing a love for her father and jealousy and blame toward her mother for depriving her of a penis. Although many textbooks state that the Electra complex is a Freudian term, Freud used the term Oedipus Complex in reference to both boys and girls....

On This Page:ToggleLife OverviewPsychoanalysis DevelopmentThemes On This Page:Toggle On This Page: Key Takeaways Life Overview Pierre Janet was born in Paris in the mid-19th century and taught philosophy at a grammar school before doing volunteer work at a hospital, where he engaged in psychiatric research and published his philosophical thesis,L’automatisme Psychologique, in 1889. Janet then returned to Paris to continue his study of medicine and came to be regarded as the founder of medical and clinical psychology in France....

On This Page:ToggleAimProcedureFindingsConclusionCritical Evaluation On This Page:Toggle On This Page: Piliavin I. M., Rodin, J., & Piliavin, J. A. (1969). Good samaritanism: an underground phenomenon?.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 13(4), 289. In the Piliavin (1969) Subway Study, researchers investigated the influence of bystander intervention by staging a series of situations involving a person in need of help on a subway train, demonstrating the role of various factors like race and urgency in determining the likelihood of bystander assistance....

On This Page:ToggleDefinitionExamplesCausesMeasuring On This Page:Toggle On This Page: Key Points Pluralistic ignorance occurs when individuals privately reject a norm, belief or behavior, but assume others accept it, so they go along with it publicly. Definition Pluralistic ignorance is a term used to explain why people also fail to respond to an emergency when there are other people around. When we witness an emergency, we may be unsure of what to do, so we rely on the behavior of others to guide us....

On This Page:ToggleOverviewHow it WorksThe Reference PointDecision Analysis Phases of the Decision-Making ProcessCriticismExamples On This Page:Toggle On This Page: It describes how people evaluate their losses and acquire insight in an asymmetric fashion. Unlike the expected utility theory, which models the decision-making of perfectly rational agents, the prospect theory aims to describe the actual conduct of individuals and finds application in behavioral finance and economics. Moreover, while a probabilistic deprivation is favored over a sure deprivation, a definite gain is preferred to a probabilistic gain....

On This Page:ToggleLearning Approach Social Learning Theory (AO1)Cognitive ApproachBiological ApproachPsychodynamic ApproachHumanistic Psychology On This Page:Toggle On This Page: Learning Approach: Behaviorism Assumptions(AO1) First, the dogs were presented with the food, and they salivated. The food was theunconditioned stimulus,and salivation was anunconditioned(innate)response. ThenPavlovsounded the bell (neutral stimulus) before giving the food. After a fewpairings,the dogs salivated when they heard the bell, even when no food was given. The bell had become theconditioned stimulus,and salivation had become theconditioned response....

On This Page:ToggleBackgroundConnection to MarxismTraditional CriminologyExample TheoriesVs. Conflict TheoriesShortcomings On This Page:Toggle On This Page: Key Takeaways Background Radical criminology’s thesis is that society functions in the interests of those with the most power rather than those of the collective. According to this theory, while there is always a potential for conflict, the power of the ruling class neutralizes it. Radical criminology rose to prominence in the 1960s. At the time, criminologists began to question traditional criminology....

On This Page:ToggleOriginCharacteristicsVs. Organizational TheoriesAdvantages and DisadvantagesExamples On This Page:Toggle On This Page: Key PointsAccording to rational choice theory, people calculate the costs and benefits of choices in making decisions. The perceived costs, risks, and benefits of certain actions can be dependent on one’s own personal preferences.The underlying notion of rational choice theory dates back to classical economists such as Adam Smith, but the theory was not adopted into sociology officially until the 1950s and 1960s....