On This Page:ToggleRisk factors in the development of addiction (AO1)Explanations for nicotine addictionLearning TheoryExplanations for gambling addictionReducing addictionApplying theories of behavior change to addictive behavior On This Page:Toggle On This Page: Describing Addiction Addiction is included in the Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM 5) in the category “Substance-related and Addictive Disorders.” The only behavior included is gambling, as not enough research on other behavior, such as internet use, has been carried out to justify their inclusion....

AQA A-Level Psychology (7182) and AS-Level Psychology (7181) past exam papers and marking schemes. The past papers are free to download for you to use as practice for your exams.Paper 1: Introductory TopicsPaper 2: Psychology in ContextPaper 3: Issues and OptionsAS Psychology (7181): Paper 1A-Level Psychology (7182): Paper 172 Marks96 Marks90 minutes120 minutes50% of AS Qualification33.3% of A-Level QualificationSocial Influence, Memory, AttachmentSocial Influence, Memory, Attachment, PsychopathologyJune 2022Download Past Paper: A-Level (7182)Download Past Paper: AS (7181)Download Mark Scheme: A-Level (7182)Download Mark Scheme: AS (7181)November 2021 (Labelled as June 2021)Download Past Paper: A-Level (7182)Download Mark Scheme: A-Level (7182)November 2020 (Labelled as June 2020)Download Past Paper: A-Level (7182)Download Past Paper: AS (7181)Download Mark Scheme: A-Level (7182)Download Mark Scheme: AS (7181)June 2019Download Past Paper:A-Level (7182)Download Past Paper:AS (7181)Download Mark Scheme: A-Level (7182)Download Mark Scheme: AS (7181)June 2018Download Past Paper:A-Level (7182)Download Past Paper: AS (7181)Download Mark Scheme: A-Level (7182)Download Mark Scheme: AS (7181)June 2017Download Past Paper:A-Level (7182)Download Past Paper:AS (7181)Download Mark Scheme: A-Level (7182)Download Mark Scheme: AS (7181)June 2016Download Past Paper: A-Level (7182)Download Past Paper: AS (7181)Download Mark Scheme: A-Level (7182)Download Mark Scheme: AS (7181)AS Psychology (7181): Paper 2A-Level Psychology (7182): Paper 272 Marks96 Marks90 minutes120 minutes50% of AS Qualification33....

On This Page:ToggleDefinition and BackgroundClassical ConditioningExpectancy TheoryExamples On This Page:Toggle On This Page: Key Takeaways Biological preparedness theory posits that humans are evolutionarily predisposed to learn some associations more readily than others. Definition and Background Biological preparedness is the idea that organisms are biologically predisposed to quickly learning associations between stimuli, responses, and reinforcers (Seligman, 1971). Seligman suggests that humans have a biological preparedness to develop certain phobias rather than others because they were adaptive (i....

On This Page:ToggleHistory and OverviewDegeneration Theory (1857)Atavistic Theory of Crime (1876)Sheldon Somotypes Theory (1942)Terrie Moffit’s Two-Path Theory (1993)Modern Biological Theories of CrimeCritical EvaluationFurther Reading On This Page:Toggle On This Page: Key Takeaways History and Overview Biological theories of crimes state that whether or not people commit crimes depends on their biological nature. The biological characteristics that biological theories of crime claim are associated with criminality could include factors such as genetics, neurology, or physical constitution....

On This Page:ToggleCathartic ReleaseTherapeutic UsesIn Everyday LanguageExamplesCritical Evaluation On This Page:Toggle On This Page: Catharsis is the expression of formerly repressed feelings in order to overcome problems associated with them. The term is commonly used in connection with psychoanalysis, where it is believed that underlying problems cannot be resolved unless the emotions connected with them are also discharged. Key TakeawaysThe word catharsis describes the relief of built-up tension or strong emotions....

On This Page:ToggleAtavistic FormMeasuring Crime The “Born Criminal”Critical Evaluation On This Page:Toggle On This Page: In 1876 Lombroso, an Italian criminologist proposed an atavistic form as an explanation for offending behavior. This explanation was focused on the notion that criminals have physical distinguishing features. InThe Criminal Man(“L’Uomo delinquente”), first published in 1876, he suggested that there was distinct biological class of people that were prone to criminality. These people exhibited ‘atavistic’ (i....

On This Page:ToggleDefinitionDevelopmentUnderstanding Conflict TheoryCausesExamples On This Page:Toggle On This Page: Key Takeaways Conflict theories emphasize looking at the history and events in a society in terms of structural power divisions, such as social class.Although few modern sociologists call themselves conflict theorists, scholars as notable as Karl Marx (1818–1883), Max Weber (1864–1920), Talcott Parsons (1902–1979), and Ralf Dahrendorf (1929–2009) have formulated theories as to what causes conflict, its normalcy, and the impact it has on societies....

On This Page:ToggleImplicationsTypesAssumptionsIllustrative ExamplesCultural vs. Moral RelativismCultural Relativism vs. EthnocentrismControversy On This Page:Toggle On This Page: Key Takeaways Cultural Relativism is the claim that ethical practices differ among cultures, and what is considered right in one culture may be considered wrong in another.The implication of cultural relativism is that no one society is superior to another; they are merely different.This claim comes with several corollaries; namely, that different societies have different moral codes, there is no objective standard to judge how good or bad these moral codes are, and that the job of those who study cultures is not to compare these customs to their own, but to describe them....

On This Page:ToggleCultural Deviance TheoryCohen’s Cultural Transmission TheoryEmpirical ValidityModern Subcultural Theories On This Page:Toggle On This Page: Key TakeawaysCriminologists, beginning in the mid-20th century, have examined how environmental factors can influence criminal behavior. Early theories painted deviance as a result of a clash of values between classes and as a means to obtain conventional success.However, in the latter half of the 20th century, criminologists shifted their attention away from the impact of middle-class attitudes on others and toward the culture within the lower class....

On This Page:ToggleWhat is Scapegoating?Durkheim’s Scapegoat TheoryTypesApplicationsIntergroup ConflictExamples On This Page:Toggle On This Page: Summary Scapegoating can lead to prejudice, discrimination, and even violence against innocent people who are unfairly blamed for problems they did not cause. What is Scapegoating? Scapegoating is the act of blaming an out-group when the frustration of the in-group experience is blocked from obtaining a goal (Allport, 1954). Scapegoating is a way to analyze negative experiences in terms of blaming an innocent individual or group for the event....

On This Page:ToggleBackgroundPhilip Zimbardo’s Approach to DeindividuationCriticismsSocial Identity Theory’s Explanation of DeindividuationExamplesReducing Deindividualization On This Page:Toggle On This Page: Key takeaways Deindividuation refers to a psychological state where one feels anonymity and a diminished sense of self-awareness and evaluation apprehension. This can occur in group situations where individuality is hidden or not the focus. Definition and Historical Background Deindividuation is a process where people lose their sense of socialized individual identity and resort to unsocialized and anti-social behavior....

On This Page:ToggleDefinitionExamplesWhy They HappenAvoiding Ecological Fallacies On This Page:Toggle On This Page: Ecological fallacy refers to a methodological error in which characteristics of a population as a whole are attributed to groups within that population without any real connection between them being demonstrated.Key PointsThe ecological fallacy is a logical error that can occur when individuals mistakenly infer information about individuals from aggregate data.The ecological fallacy can lead to false or inaccurate conclusions about social phenomena and the individuals within those phenomena....

On This Page:ToggleNine PropositionsThe Cambridge studyExamplesCritical EvaluationReferencesFurther Readings On This Page:Toggle On This Page: Key Takeaways Nine Propositions The first explicit statement of the theory of differential association appears in the 1939 edition ofPrinciples of Criminology,and in the fourth edition of it, he presented his final theory. His theory has nine basic postulates. Thieves generally steal in order to secure money, but honest laborers work in order to money. The Cambridge study This was aprospective longitudinal studyof the development of offending and antisocial behavior in 411 males....

On This Page:ToggleDefinitionHow It WorksAssumptions On This Page:Toggle On This Page: Key Takeaways Definition The elaboration likelihood model seeks to explore how humans process stimuli differently and how the outcomes of these processes result in changing attitudes and, consequently, behavior. Persuasion happens internally, which means that no one can persuade anybody with certainty of success. Rather, people can only design for persuasion. Thus, the model is ultimately a way of guiding how people can design more persuasive systems....

On This Page:ToggleLife OverviewThemesFromm’s Five Human NeedsReligious Analysis On This Page:Toggle On This Page: Key Takeaways Erich Fromm (1900-1980) was a German-American psychoanalyst associated with the Frankfurt School, who emphasized culture’s role in developing personality. He advocated psychoanalysis as a tool for curing cultural problems and thus reducing mental illness.Fromm believed that character in humans evolved as a way for people to meet their needs. Unlike Freud, he did not believe that character was fixed....